Grammar Usage

In the bustling town of Accra, the Quaye family prepares for the naming ceremony of their new-born daughter. The sun shines brightly on the morning of the eighth day after her birth, signalling the start of the ceremony.

Nana Ama, the elder, arrives bearing a beautifully crafted gold necklace adorned with Ghanaian symbols. She declares the baby’s name as Naa Adjeley meaning ‘first born of the afternoon’ and gently places the necklace around Naa Adjeley’s neck, symbolising protection and cultural heritage.

The family and guests rejoice with a feast of Jollof rice and Kenkey, celebrating Naa Adjeley’s entry into the world.

This story shows the importance Ghanaians attach to names. The names we call people, such as Nana Ama, Naa Adjeley; places, such as Accra; and objects, such as necklace are nouns. Nouns are one of the most important word classes in English Language.

At the end of this lesson, you can;

Identify nouns in speech and in writing.

Use words which are nouns accurately in speech and writing.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Use nouns accurately in speech and writing.

Key Idea:

• A Word class, alternatively known as part of speech, refers to the different categories of words used in grammar. Grammar is the set of rules that explain how words are used in a language through both speaking and writing. Nouns are naming words.

NOUNS Nouns are words that represent people (e.g. child, choir, and learner), places (e.g. Ejisu, Tatale, and Makola Market), objects (e.g. pencil, stones, computer, and television), animals (e.g. deer, dog, and goat), and festivals (e.g. Damba, Odwira and Hogbetsotso).

Fig 1.4 Types of nouns Forms/Types of Nouns

1. Common Nouns – Common nouns are general naming words. They are usually not capitalised except they begin a sentence. For example: computer, projector, toddler, ghost, park, speaker, airport, river and mountain.

2. Proper Nouns—These are specific naming words, always capitalised. Examples:

Adiza, Kakum National Park, The Speaker of Parliament, Kotoka International Airport, River Pra, Mountain Afadja, and so on.

3. Concrete Nouns – Concrete nouns are physical things that can be seen, touched, and felt. For example, window, phone, wood, canoe and mountain.

4. Abstract Nouns – Abstract nouns are non-physical ideas that cannot be perceived through the senses. In other words, they cannot be touched, seen and heard. For

example – truth, danger, happiness, love, honesty, integrity, sincerity, peace, joy and hatred.

Activity 1.10

Look around you and write down three objects you see.

• Find out from your friends what objects they have written down.

• Based on your findings and that of your friends, what do you think nouns are?

Activity 1.11

1. Read the paragraph below and identify as many nouns as you can.

The media in Ghana consist primarily of print, radio, and television. These play important roles in the country’s communication. It started with The Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer in 1822. This was the first print journalism in the Gold Coast era. Then came newspapers like The Gold Coast Independent, which influenced public opinion and politics. The Gold Coast Broadcasting System began in 1935, bringing radio. Television was added in 1965. These media outlets form the foundation of Ghana’s mass media, which reflect the country’s diverse narratives and perspectives.

2. Classify the nouns identified in ‘Activity 3.2a’ above according to the examples given in the worksheet below:

W X Y Z Gold Coast press unity papers

3. What informed the groupings of the nouns into W, X, Y and Z?

4. Use any noun to ask your peer a question so that your peer can use another noun to respond appropriately.

GLOSSARY

In our previous lesson, we noted the vital role names/nouns play in our day-to-day lives, hence the need to know and use them correctly. Thus, we learned what they are and some of the types (i.e. common, proper, abstract and concrete nouns).

In this lesson, we shall continue to discuss other types of nouns and then proceed to their functions.

Consider the scenario below:

Yussif rides with his cousins, Abena, Fafa and Amerley to school every day on the school bus. On Fridays, Yussif goes to the mosque with his parents and only brother to pray. On the other hand, on Sundays, Abena, Fafa and Amerley with their respective parents join the congregation of a local Catholic church to worship. Once a month, the children (boys and girls alike) and their parents come together on Saturdays to play fun games like ‘ampe’, ‘football’, ‘piloloo’, and ‘chaskele’. To them, happiness stems from unity and harmony.

From the scenario above, it is noted that nouns that have been used to reflect different types, such as count/non-count, collective, regular/irregular nouns can be seen. (As a starter activity, try and identify an example of each type). It can also be seen that nouns specific functions.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Identify nouns as subjects, objects, complements and appositives.

• Use nouns accurately in speech and in writing.

Key Ideas

• Subject is the grammatical element that performs the action described by' the verb, or it is the grammatical element that is being talked about in the sentence.

• Object is the grammatical element that receives the action of the verb.

• Complement is a grammatical element that refers to another element already mentioned in the sentence. Note that ‘complement’ can be a noun or an adjective.

• Appositive is a noun that follows another noun immediately to identify or explain it.

NOUNS A noun is a word that names something. There are different types/forms of nouns.

These include:

1. Count Nouns: Count nouns are nouns that can be counted. They have singular and plural forms and can be used with “a” or “an” in singular form or numbers in plural form. For example, coconut/coconuts, pen/pens, book/books, chair/chairs, umbrella/umbrellas

2. Non-Count Nouns refer to nouns that name substances, abstract things, and concepts that cannot be divided into separate elements. You cannot “count” them. For example, intelligence, sand, knowledge, water, oil, and sugar.

3. Collective Nouns: These refer to groups of people or things as a single unit. For

example, children, family, leaders.

4. Regular/Irregular Nouns: Regular nouns are those nouns that form their plural by adding “s” or “-es”. For example, boy/boys, girl/girls, chick/chicks, church/ churches, and wish/wishes.

5. Irregular nouns on the other hand do not follow any standard pattern in their plural forms. They may form their plural by changing the vowel sound, adding a different ending, or taking up an entirely new form altogether. For example, men/ man, child/children, cow/cattle, and mouse/mice.

6. Possessive (Genitive) forms of nouns show ownership or possession. This often takes the form apostrophe ‘s’ (’s), apostrophe alone (’) and ‘s’ apostrophe (s’) in regular plurals.

Ways of Forming Possessives or Genitives

a. Apostrophe ‘s’ (’s) is added to show singular possession. For example: • Akwasi’s bag

• Fuseina’s car

• Dzifanu’s house

b. Adding ‘s’ to the possessive case in regular plural nouns. For example:

i. The boys’ dormitory

ii. The girls’ house

iii. Mfantsipim Boys’ School

c. Adding the apostrophe mark without an 's' to nouns ending in 's'. For example:

i. Abass’ book

ii. Rawlings’ speech

iii. James’ bag

iv. Akos’ bicycle

v. Dorcas’ wardrobe

d. Adding ‘of’ to the noun phrase. For example:

i. The title of the poem

ii. Kudus was the man of the match.

iii. The wife of Hamza was there.

Functions of Nouns

In a sentence, nouns can play crucial roles as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, subject complements, object complements, objects of the preposition, and appositives.

Fig 2.1 Functions of nouns Nouns as Subjects A noun is said to function as a subject if that noun performs the action of the verb or it is what/who is being talked about in a sentence.

For example:

a. Chiefs must be revered. (Subject of ‘must be revered’)

b. The class wrote a poem for their English teacher. (subject of ‘wrote’)

c. The singing of folk songs makes me happy. (subject of ‘makes’) Nouns as Direct Objects A noun functions as a direct object if the noun receives the action of the verb. That noun answers the question ‘What?’ or ‘Whom?’ and follows an action verb such as ‘eat, dance, write, sweep’.

For example:

a. I eat banku every day. (Object of ‘eat’)

b. The president appointed Cynthia Morrison as minister of Gender and Children’s Affairs. (Object of ‘appointed’) Nouns as Indirect Objects A noun functions as an indirect object if the noun clarifies to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done. The indirect object precedes the direct object.

For example:

a. My mother bought my father a gold watch on his birthday. (Indirect object of ‘bought’)

b. Maame Serwaa tells her grandchildren Kwaku Ananse stories whenever they go to the village to visit her. (Indirect object of ‘tells’) Nouns as Subject Complements Subject complements are nouns that provide more information about the subject in the sentence. It follows a linking verb.

For example:

a. Dr. Yaw Adutwum is the Education Minister. (Complement of the subject ‘Dr.

Yaw. Adutwum’)

b. Teaching is a noble profession. (Complement of the subject ‘Teaching’) Nouns as Object Complements An object complement is a noun that follows the direct object and adds more information to it.

For example:

a. The teacher’s association with Kojo made him a better person. (Complement of the object ‘him’)

b. I consider Ghana a rich country. (Complement of the object ‘Ghana’) Nouns as Object of Prepositions This is the noun that follows a preposition.

For example:

a. The students headed to their classrooms after the morning assembly. (Object of the preposition ‘after’)

b. Children are encouraged to help their parents at home. (Object of the preposition ‘at’) Nouns as Appositives Nouns function as appositives when they immediately follow another noun. They add details that classify and clarify the nouns and also reduce wordiness.

For example:

a. Ghana, a land of blessed resources, gained independence in 1957. (An appositive to ‘Ghana’)

b. Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana, died on 27ᵗʰApril 1972. (In apposition to ‘Kwame Nkrumah’)

Activity 2.1

1. Write down one abstract noun and one concrete noun. Write down the plural forms of the two nouns you have written down.

2. Engage one of your friends in a conversation using nouns to show possession.

Note down the various ways you and your friend were able to use nouns to show possession.

3. Join five (5) of your peers or other learners to form a circle. Introduce yourself enthusiastically to the one standing to your left-hand side, saying, Hello, my name is … (use your name). Nice to meet you! The next person should give an appropriate response. For example: The pleasure is mine/ Nice to meet you too. Why are you in school? Do this until everyone has had their turn. The 6th person or any member, as agreed by the group, should write down all the sentences used in the circle.

4. Take your jotter and write down three (3) examples of each of the nouns under the following categories and use each one of them in a sentence:

a. Nouns that perform the actions of the verbs

b. Nouns that receive/suffer the action of the verb

c. Nouns that follow a preposition

d. Nouns that come after another noun to identify/explain it

e. Nouns that come after a linking verb and provide information about the subject

f. Nouns that provide information about the object

2.1 GRAMMAR Read the paragraph below and answer the questions that follow.

The Ashanti monarch, Otumfuo Osei Tutu II, who holds an important ceremonial role in Ghana, said their return would help unite his people. The ceremony came as pressure grew for European and US museums and institutions to restore African artefacts stolen during the rule of former colonial powers Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium. The Ghana royal treasures from the Fowler Museum, including a gold necklace, an ornamental chair and an elephant tail whisk, were presented during a ceremony of chiefs at the Manhyia Palace in the city of Kumasi in the Ashanti region.

–– (Source: Africa World News/ Channels Television)

1. Write down five (5) nouns in the passage you have just read.

2. Describe their functions within the context in which they are used. Note: They should cut across at least three functions.

2.2 WRITING

1. Explain cohesive devices.

2. Explain a paragraph and identify its parts.

3. Identify the topic sentence in the text below:

Novels have been part of Ghana’s education since the 1960s, and their appeal has survived to the present day. The stories are told both through text and images. In recent times, there has been much debate regarding whether our novels have a place within the library’s collection. For some people, novels are silly and violent;

for others, novels deal with current issues, with serious subjects and opportunities for personal learning.

4. Use the following cohesive devices to develop a three-paragraph passage on a topic of your choice.

(‘First and foremost’, ‘Furthermore’, ‘In summary’) 2.3 LITERATURE

1. Explain Literature in your own words.

Study the following extracts and use them to answer the questions that follow:

Extract 1 I want to be your moon, your sky, your dream, your everything.

Extract 2 The wedding was to take place a day after Brown Teeth‘s return. The imam would bless him as an Alhaji and perform the marriage rites, so there would be a double celebration. The day he returned, the whole village was astir. When I got home from the stream that evening, Auntie was not home. She had gone to her sister to borrow some jewellery for the festivities the next day.

Extract 3 Ananse: Well, you see, I am only a lonely, hungry traveller. I came across this meal and couldn’t help but ...

Akpala: Help yourself to it... uninvited, eh? Well, I must take you to the King.

You have broken a crucial taboo and intercepted a critical ritual process. You must answer to the King.

Ananse: O please, please. Can’t you spare me?

Akpala: And face the wrath of the spirits? No! Up strange one! Mount that bowl on your head and get along. This way... Hurry!

2. Identify the genres of Literature employed in each of the three extracts above.

3. What informed your choice of responses for question 2 above?

4. Relate from this the importance of literature to real life.

Additional Reading Materials

• New Gateway English for Senior High School Book 1 (Pg 8 – 10)

• Organised English Grammar, John F. Wiredu (Pg 5 -26)

• Organised English Structure, John F. Wiredu (Pg 109)

• Warriner’s English Grammar and Composition, Franklin Edition (Fifth Course) (Pg 26-35;

54-55)

• Functional English for Senior High Schools (Pg 123 -126)

• Warriner’s English Grammar and Composition (pp 274 -299)

• New Gateway to English for Senior High Schools (Pg 163)

• Newspaper articles

• Kaya Girl by Mamle Wolo

• Functional English for Senior High Schools (Pg 93 – 102) References

• Murphy, R. (2019). English Grammar in Use (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Carter, R., & McCarthy, M. (2020). Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide (2nd ed.)Cambridge University Press.

• Azar, B. S., & Hagen, S. A. (2021). Understanding and Using English Grammar (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

• Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Wiredu. F. J, (1992). Organised English Structure, with A Self-Study and Practice Book for students of Training colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities: Academic Publications Accra.

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS

In previous sections, we have discussed names/nouns and their importance in our everyday lives. However, sometimes, instead of using names such as Afua, Abu, Kotokuraba market, and we replace them with she, he, it, and they are mainly to avoid repetition. These words, which we use to replace nouns in speech and in writing, are called pronouns. In this section, we shall discuss what pronouns are and some of the types.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Use pronoun types accurately in speech and in writing.

Key Ideas

• Personal Pronouns: They are simple words that are used to replace proper nouns.

• Relative Pronouns: They are pronouns that connect the dependent clause to the main clause.

• Possessive Pronouns: They are pronouns used to show ownership/possession.

PRONOUNS A pronoun is a word that stands in for a noun, often to avoid the need to repeat the same noun. Like nouns, pronouns can refer to people, things, concepts, and places.

Most sentences contain at least one noun or pronoun. Some types of pronouns include Personal pronouns, Possessive pronouns and Relative pronouns.

Personal Pronouns

Fig 3.4 Personal pronouns They are simple pronouns that are used to substitute proper nouns. Some examples of personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, him, her, us, it and them. Each of these pronouns shows the grammatical gender, number and case. They allow us to speak and write with economy since they enable the speaker/writer to avoid repeating difficult nouns.

The grammatical gender of a pronoun pertains to the social and personal identity that individuals express, which can influence the pronouns they use or prefer others to use when referring to them.

The grammatical number of a pronoun tells whether a pronoun or the noun a pronoun is replacing is singular or plural.

The grammatical case of a pronoun refers to the function that a pronoun has in a sentence.

There are three (3) forms of personal pronouns: first-person pronouns, second-person pronouns, and third-person pronouns.

Fig 3.5 personal pronouns

Table 1.1. Forms of pronouns, showing their number, gender and case.

Subject Object

1ˢᵗPerson Singular Neutral I Me I like stories.

They please me.

Plural Neutral We Us We like stories.

They please us 2ⁿᵈPerson Singular Neutral You You You told a compelling story.

I know stories please you.

Plural 3ʳᵈPerson Singular Masculine He Him He told him a story.

Feminine She Her She didn’t tell her the truth.

Non-person It It She had to guess it.

Plural They Them They wanted to hear them speak again.

Note:

• First and second person personal pronouns are gender neutral.

• First person pronouns are used to point out the speaker who makes the statement.

• Second-person pronouns indicate the person to whom the statement is being directed.

• Third-person pronouns reference persons/things that are not present when the statement is made.

Possessive Pronouns

Fig 3.6 possessive pronouns Possessive pronouns are used to show possession. They include mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, ours and its. These pronouns are used to show ownership without repeating the nouns representing the owner and the possession.

For example:

a. Kwamina says that the football is Kwamina’s football. (In-correct)

b. Kwamina says that the football is his. (Correct)

c. This is my house, and that house is theirs.

d. The traditional cloth is hers, passed down from her grandmother.

e. The Ghana Black Stars wore their jerseys proudly knowing that their victory was ours.

Sometimes, pronouns such as my, your, his, her, its, our and their pre-modify/precede nouns to show possession. These kinds of possessive pronouns are called possessive adjectives.

For example:

a. I love my country, Ghana.

b. Your friend betrayed you.

c. Our culture is unique and beautiful.

Fig 3.7 Examples of Possessive pronouns Relative Pronouns Fig 3.8 Relative pronoun Relative pronouns relate/connect one part of the sentence to another. They are also used to introduce dependent clauses, which are also known as relative clauses. Thus, they provide additional information about nouns in independent clauses, thereby helping to clarify them.

They include that, which, when, why, what, whom, whose and who.

For example:

a. The woman who helped me was truly kind.

b. The book which is on the table is mine.

c. The student whose book is lost will have to buy a new one.

d. The person whom I met was very friendly.

e. The time when we met was incredibly special.

f. The place that we visited last year was very special.

g. The book which my teacher recommended is on the table.

h. The children who helped us are orphans.

Rules for Correct Usage of Pronouns

1. When the noun the pronoun replaces is human, who (for subject) or whom (for object) is used.

For example:

The woman who helped me was truly kind. (Subjective case) The person whom I met is very friendly. (Objective case)

2. When the pronoun replaces a non-human noun, which is used, for both subject or object.

For example:

The book which is on the table is mine. (subject) The book which my teacher recommended is on the table. (object)

3. The relative pronoun that is used to replace nouns whether human or non-human.

For example:

The place that we visited last year was very special. (non-human noun) The children who helped us are orphans. (human noun)

Activity 3.5

1. Replace the nouns in the sentences below with another element without changing the meaning:

a. Awushie is going to the polling station to vote.

b. The students are reading their history textbooks.

c. The cat is sleeping on the mat.

d. Amu’s car is made in Ghana.

e. The team’s captain is an inspirational leader.

2. Based on your outcome, say/write down what you think nouns are.

3. Critically look at your ‘converted’ version of the sentences in 1(a)–(e) of this activity. Think about why such elements are used to replace nouns in sentences.

4. Write down the types of pronouns based on their usage in your jotter.

Compare your answers with a peer and share what informed your answers.

Activity 3.6

Join three to five friends and perform this activity together.

One after another, pick a word, create a scenario with it and act it out. Note, the scenario must have a pronoun. The words are father, mother, cousin, friend, and neighbour. For example, ‘My father is a driver.’ After, let the other guess the scenario. Whoever guesses right, gains a point.

The player then proceeds to identify the pronoun and the type to end a turn before the next player.

GLOSSARY

You have already learned that pronouns are words that are used to replace nouns. It has been established that pronouns are used to avoid unnecessary repetitions. While some pronouns are used as substitutes for proper nouns (personal pronoun), others are used to show possession (possessive pronouns), not to exclude those that are used to relate one part of a sentence to another (relative pronouns).

In this section, we will continue with our discussion on the types of pronouns.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Identify interrogative, reflexive and demonstrative pronouns in speech and in writing.

• Use these types of pronouns accurately in speech and writing.

Key Ideas

• Interrogative Pronouns: These pronouns are used to ask questions.

• Reflexive Pronouns: These pronouns refer to the subject.

• Demonstrative Pronouns: They point out specific ideas, things, or persons.

Activity 4.1

Let us take a moment to revise what we have learned in the previous section by reading the paragraph below and identifying the personal, relative and possessive pronouns in them.

I wake up early every morning to get ready for school. My sister, who shares my room, helps me choose what to wear. After breakfast, I grab my backpack and head out the door to meet my friends, whom I’ve known since childhood. We walk to school together, discussing our plans for the day. When I arrive at my locker, I take out my books and head to my first class, where I meet my teacher who always greets me with a smile.

This is a paragraph detailing the everyday activity of an individual.

Share yours with your friend. Also, tell your friend which of these activities in the paragraph you can relate to.

Interrogative Pronouns

Fig 4.1 interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions about a person, a thing, or an idea, to seek clarification or information. They include who, what, when, whom, why, where, which, whose, and so on.

Notes on Proper Usage of Interrogative Pronouns

a. The interrogative pronouns who and whom are used to refer to human nouns.

For example:

i. Who are the learners who will be participating in the debate competition?

ii. Whom did you consult about your college application?

b. The interrogative pronoun what is used for non-human nouns.

For example:

• What trickery has Ananse got himself into this time? (Correct)

• What man ate the food? (Incorrect)

c. The interrogative pronoun which is used for both humans and non-humans. For

example:

i. Which book do you think is more interesting, fiction or non-fiction?

(Non-human)

ii. Which friend of yours recommended this restaurant? (Human)

d. The interrogative pronoun whose is used to show possession or relationship and generally is for human nouns. For example:

• Whose clever idea was it to trick the idiots into doing Ananse’s chores?

(Whose is used to ask a question about the ‘idea’ belonging to a human entity, ‘Ananse’).

Fig 4.2 interrogative pronouns Forms of Reflexive Pronouns Fig 4.3 reflexive pronouns

a. Singular – myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself

b. Plural – ourselves, yourselves, themselves Functions of Reflexive Pronouns

a. They are used to show that the action of the verb is being performed on the subject.

For example:

• Bintum washed the car himself. (The action of washing is done by the subject, ‘Bintum’)

• I cut myself while cooking for my friends. (The action of cutting is done on the subject, ‘I’)

b. They are used to emphasise the subject. For example:

• She herself designed the school magazine. (Emphasising that ‘she’ did it alone.)

• They themselves built the house from scratch. (Emphasising ‘They’) Common Errors

a. Wrong use of reflexive pronouns as in:

• My friend and *myself are going to the party. This is the wrong usage. Instead, it should read as:

• My friend and I are going to the party. (no reflexive pronoun needed)

b. Omission of reflexive pronouns when they are needed, as in:

• They built the house (omission of ‘themselves’)

• We will finish the task (omission of ‘ourselves’) Demonstrative Pronouns Fig 4.4 demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns are used to replace a noun element in a sentence and indicate which person/thing is referenced. In other words, they are used to point out specific noun elements to draw attention to them.

Forms

• Singular – this, that

• Plural – these, those Functions

a. They are used to indicate which person or thing (noun) is being referred to:

• I like this painting, but I don’t like that one. ‘This’ and ‘that’ are used to refer to which painting is liked and which is disliked.

b. They are used to draw attention to something:

• Those cookies are expensive. ‘Those’ draws attention to ‘cookies’.

c. They are used to show how near or far an object is. This and these (how near): • This is the right path.

• These are my friends.

That and those (how far):

• That house is really big.

• Those are criminals.

Activity 4.2

Read the extract below and underline all the pronouns:

Which book do you think is more interesting, this novel or that biography? I myself enjoyed reading this one over the last vacation. The author, who wrote it, is coming to our school today. Those students who have read the book are excited to meet her. When I asked my friends which character they liked best, they said it was the protagonist, who narrated the story. These chapters are my favourite parts of the book. That chapter which describes the main conflict is particularly engaging. Who do you think will play the lead role in the movie adaptation?

Myself, I think it should be an unknown actor. This book has become one of my favourites and I’m glad I chose it.

1. Group the pronouns identified in 1.1 in a table as shown below.

Interrogative Demonstrative Reflexive

Use these questions as a guide for grouping the pronouns:

• Which pronoun is asking a question? – Interrogative

• Which pronoun is referring to the subject? – Reflexive

• Which pronoun is pointing to a specific object? – Demonstrative

Activity 4.3

1. Join two other peers and take turns to perform this activity.

2. Let one keep the time, another mention a pronoun randomly, and the third identify the type of pronoun and proceed to use it in a sentence.

3. Each one of you must have a limited time within which to use an example of a particular pronoun mentioned in a sentence.

4. You must all have an equal number of turns to try this out.

5. After three rounds of even turns, when one is unable to give a sentence within time and correctly, the one with the most points wins.

Character a being that is involved in the action of a story. It could be humans or animals.

Phrase a group of words that functions as a single unit in a sentence. This cannot make complete meaning on its own unless it is joined with some other words.

Precise exact, accurate

4.1 GRAMMAR Choose the appropriate pronouns to fill in the blanks

1. The new policy applies to …… (his / its / this) department only.

2. The teacher asked the students to read …… (this / these / those) chapters for homework.

3. The company ……… (itself / themselves / that) is to blame for the failure.

4. ….. (who / which / what) is the main cause of the problem?

5. The couple …. (herself / themselves / who) built their house.

6. Identify and explain the functions of interrogative pronouns in a sentence.

7. Analyse the use of reflexive pronouns in a given text. How do they affect sentence meaning?

8. Explain the difference between demonstrative pronouns “this” and “that.”

Provide examples.

9. Evaluate the impact of using interrogative pronouns in a narrative. How do they engage readers?

10.Discuss the role of reflexive pronouns in conveying character self-awareness or introspection.

4.2 WRITING

1. Write down what a short story is.

2. Identify things to consider when drafting a story.

3. Why is it important to use precise words or phrases in storytelling or writing?

4. How does the chronological structure of a linear narrative contribute to its overall impact?

5. Analyse how a linear narrative develops character traits and relationships.

6. Explain how a linear narrative builds tension and suspense.

7. How does a non-linear narrative structure challenge reader expectations?

8. Explain how non-linear narratives reflect real life experiences.

9. Compare the effectiveness of linear and non-linear narratives in conveying themes.

10.Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of using linear versus non-linear narrative structures.

4.3 LITERATURE Surf the Internet and watch any short extract on 'The Gods Are Not To Blame' by Ola Rotimi.

1. Write down the names of any three types of characters you watched from the short video or film.

2. What is the difference between the protagonist and the antagonist?

3. What is the difference between a static and a dynamic character?

4. What is the purpose of a foil character in a story or drama?

5. How do authors use character motivations to drive the plot of a story?

6. What techniques do authors use to create dynamic characters? Provide examples.

7. What role do minor characters play in developing themes in a narrative?

8. Evaluate the effectiveness of using character foils in character development.

What benefits and limitations does this technique offer?

9. Compare and contrast flat and round characters. How do these character types contribute to the overall narrative?

10.Discuss the impact of societal expectations on character development. How can authors use character to comment on societal norms?

Extended Reading

• Murphy, R. (2019). English Grammar in Use (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Carter, R., & McCarthy, M. (2020). Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press.

• Azar, B. S., & Hagen, S. A. (2021). Understanding and Using English Grammar (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

• Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Wiredu. F. J, (1992). Organised English Structure, with A Self-Study and Practice Book for students of Training colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities: Academic Publications Accra.

Additional Reading Materials

₁. Storybooks

2. Old Newspapers

3. A1 English Language textbook

4. New Gateway to English for Senior High Schools, ABK Dadzie and N. Grant pg. 20 -21

5. Watch videos from Khan Academy on pronouns

6. The Marshmallow Test. Why Self Control is the Engine of Success by Walter Michel

7. A Curious Mind by Brian Grazer

8. Path to Purpose by William Damon

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS

You have already learned that nouns are words that name. These words, however, are not used in are however not used in isolation but in connected speech. To describe a word and distinguish one thing from another, adjectives are used. Adjectives help to bring life to the language or our expressions. It helps paint a vivid picture of our experiences in life. Adjectives are words that describe nouns. Examples include enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun and fast. They can also describe the quantity, colour, shape, size etc. of nouns, such as many, yellow, narrow, huge etc.

Functions of Adjectives

The function of an adjective is linked to the position of the adjective in a sentence. Adjectives have two main positions in a sentence. Depending on the position of the adjective, it can function either as an attributive or predicative adjective.

Attributive Function of Adjectives

Adjectives that come immediately before the nouns they qualify are said to have an attributive function or use. For example:

a. Maggie wore a beautiful hat to the gari-eating contest.

b. Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.

c. My cake should have sixteen candles.

d. The scariest villain of all time is Kweku Ananse.

Predicative Function of Adjectives

Sometimes, in a sentence, adjectives can qualify nouns without appearing right before them.

Instead, they appear after the linking verbs like become, feel, seem, remain, and grow. When adjectives appear after the verbs, they are said to have predicative use.

In the sentences below, adjectives have been used predicatively:

a. That cow is charging. (charging is describing ‘cow’)

b. The perfume smells good. (good is qualifying ‘perfume’)

c. Driving is faster than walking. (faster is a comparative adjective qualifying ‘driving’) Degrees of Adjectives Adjectives come in three forms, known as degrees. These are absolute/positive/base, comparative and superlative. Look at the sentences below:

a. Running is fast. – absolute

b. Driving is faster. – comparative

c. Rockets are fastest. – Superlative Absolute/Positive Degree of Adjectives It is the base form of the adjective which simply describes the noun or pronoun. For

example: a cool guy; a messy desk; a rigid guideline; an awful situation; a mischievous cat.

Comparative Degree of Adjectives

This makes a comparison between two things, indicating that one has a greater degree of quality than the other. It is formed by adding the suffix –er (or just –r if the adjective already ends with an e) to the absolute form of the adjective. Similarly, more can be used with the adjective to show comparative degree.

In general, for two-syllabic adjectives ending in -le, -ow, -ure or -y, the comparative degree can be formed by adding –er or -r while more can also be used for adjectives of two or more syllables.

For example: a cooler guy; a messier desk; a more rigid guideline; a more awful situation; a more mischievous cat.

Superlative Degree of Adjectives

It is used to compare three or more things, indicating that one has the highest degree of quality. It is usually formed by adding the suffix –est to the absolute form. Adjectives of two or more syllables add the word most. When you use an article with a superlative adjective, it will almost always be the definite article the rather than a or an.

For example: the coolest guy; the messiest desk; the most rigid guideline; the most awful situation; the most mischievous cat.

Note the Following Examples.

1. Adjectives that use –er and –est endings include:

a. Adjectives of one syllable. For example:

Positive Comparative Superlative

Long longer longest Old older oldest

b. Adjectives of two syllables that end in –le, -ow, -ure, -y. For example:

Nobel nobler noblest Happy happier happiest

c. Adjectives which occur with more and most for comparative and superlative respectively but never occur with the ending –er or –est. For example:

Interesting more interesting most interesting Peaceful more peaceful most peaceful

d. Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms. For

example:

Good better best Far farther farthest

e. In the rare circumstance where three different adjectives are used rhetorically together, the order is generally TIME, MANNER, PLACE as in:

The late-running, overheating, local train finally arrived.

Activity 5.6

1. Describe yourself with a word in relation to the following:

a. Physical appearance (height, weight, hair, eyes

b. Personality traits

c. Skills and abilities (e.g. Athletic and artistic)

d. Character and values

e. Emotional state These words that you have used to describe yourself are what we call adjectives.

In a sentence, write down what you understand adjectives to be.

NB: You can do this with a friend.

2. Take a sheet of paper and divide it into 5; write the following words on them:

A shy person, A strong person, A slow movement, An old person, An angry person

a. Act them out in front of one of your peers to guess the act. After that, discuss the positions of the adjectives.

3. Read the sentence below:

They are happy.

Change the subject (They) and the adjective happy to create new sentences.

Get creative!

What do you observe about the position of the adjective?

4. Create correct sentences from the jumbled-up sentences below:

a. is exciting most party the I’ve been this ever to.

b. cake more one is delicious we had this the than yesterday.

5. Show the comparative and superlative forms of these adjectives: Attractive, dazzling, obedient, short, tiny For example:

Absolute Comparative Superlative

soft softer softest Attractive Dazzling Obedient Short tiny

3. Reflect on your answers; join a peer and discuss both of your answers, making room for each other’s opinion where answers vary; identify sameness in your answers also and discuss.

4. Share your answer with your other peers or classmates (when the opportunity avails itself)

This section will expose you to the use of appropriate vocabulary in specific contexts, writing short stories using precise words and phrases, and creating monologues and dialogues to boost your confidence in your use of language in everyday discourse- speech and writing. The interactive use of 21st-century skills and inculcation of moral values will also enhance your participation. The use of games and other interactive

activities will also make the lessons in this chapter exciting.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Use appropriate vocabulary in specific contexts (Formal and informal situations)

• Write short stories using precise words and phrases to convey a vivid picture of experiences.

• Create monologues and dialogues in narratives and plays to make meaning.

Key Ideas

• Formal Language: They are expressions that are non-personal and used mainly for professional and academic purposes.

• Informal Language: They are expressions used in everyday conversations.

• A narrative is a piece of writing or a speech that gives an account of events that happen at a particular place and time.

• Linear narrative is one in which appropriate linking words are used to show the relationship between or among ideas or sentences and paragraphs.

• A monologue is a speech delivered by one person or a long, one-sided conversation.

• A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people, often involving an exchange of ideas, opinions or information.

• Narratives refer to stories or accounts of events, experiences, or situations that are told through various mediums.

• Plays are written narratives that are intended to be performed on stage in front of an audience.

Effective communication is key to conveying meaning in discourse. Equally important is using the right language to reflect the context of language use. People do not talk to their superiors the same way they talk with their best friends. Thus, whether you are chatting with a friend on social media or delivering a presentation to a global audience or writing a letter for employment, your language choice will not be the same. They have to vary to reflect the setting – formal or informal. In this lesson, we will explore the use of formal language.

Language is dynamic. Nonetheless, the formality of language must be observed in every context. There are two types of language – formal and informal. We shall begin with the formal use of language.

Formal Use of Language

Formal language is used in non-personal situations. In other words, it is characterised by an objective tone. It is English that is appropriate for formal reports, formal essays such as job applications, the courtroom, workplace communication, parliamentary proceedings and addresses on solemn occasions. Many of the words used in these contexts are not the same as those used in everyday conversations. Formal language expressions are often long and elaborately constructed. Contractions and slang are hardly used.

For example, in seeking permission to visit the ‘restroom’, you may say “May I go out, Madam?” NOT, “I am going to the washroom.”

Features of Formal Language

₁. It is used in official, professional or academic settings – the Head’s office, Post Office, Parliament House, etc.

2. It is characterised by objective tone, complex vocabulary, precise grammar and syntax.

3. Colloquialisms, slang and contractions must be avoided.

4. Language must be polite and respectful.

For example, in a formal letter applying for a job, we might write:

I believe I will be an asset to your company. I have attached my resume and references as requested. I value your consideration of my application.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Examples of Some Formal Expressions:

1. Commence proceedings

2. Conduct thorough investigation

3. Deliberate and consider

4. Draw a conclusion

5. Facilitate communication/ facilitate a process Below are examples of Formal and Informal Vocabulary The contrastive nature of the table is to promote easy understanding of what formal language is not.

Informal Formal

Tell me more Elaborate Be done Finished Show Demonstrate Give Provide Make up Fabricate Find out Discover Plus Moreover So Thus Also Additionally But However Meanwhile In the interim In a nutshell Essentially Huge Enormous Tiny Diminutive Okay Acceptable Friendly Amiable Rude Disagreeable Messed up Damaged

Activity 6.1

1. Act these out with your peers or siblings:

Greeting: a nurse at a hospital, a teacher in your school; a shop attendant at the mall; a driver’s mate on a bus, a friend or a younger brother.

2. Which of these responses is more serious and which of them is less serious?

Note down your feedback in a tabular form.

a. Still with your friend, tell each other some of the expressions you use when you want to be excused from a family gathering and the classroom (what do you say to your friend and what do you say to your teacher).

Note down your responses.

b. Compare your answers with a friend.

3. Read these two paragraphs on tolerating and accepting divergent views.

a. Which of them is formal? How do you know?

b. How are the formal expressions different from the informal ones?

Chill out and let people have different opinions, you know? It’s okay if someone doesn’t see eye-to-eye with you. Just listen to what they have to say and try to get where they’re coming from. You might learn something new or find a fresh perspective. Who knows, you might even change your mind! The point is we can disagree without being disagreeable. Let’s keep it civil and have some respect for each other’s views.

Tolerating divergent views is an essential aspect of fostering a culture of inclusivity and intellectual diversity. It entails acknowledging the validity of opposing perspectives, even when they contradict one’s own beliefs, and engaging in constructive dialogue to better understand the underlying rationales. By embracing this ethos, individuals can cultivate a nuanced understanding of complex issues and develop innovative solutions that incorporate a multiplicity of viewpoints.

c. With other learners, use the formal language paragraph to act out a scene or two depending on your interpretation of the content.

GRAMMAR

1. Identify a total of five (5) words often used at funeral grounds and in a religious service and use each of them to form sentences. This is a written exercise.

2. Read the paragraph below and fill in the blanks:

In Ghana, greetings are an integral part of the cultural …i… and play a significant role in ….ii…. interactions. Upon encountering someone, it is customary to exchange pleasantries, which may include a ….iii…. greeting such as “Akwaaba” (welcome in Akan), “Te bron” (good morning in Bono), “efoa” (how are you in Ewe) or “wo ho te sεn” (how are you in Akan).

Additionally, ...iv…. gestures like handshakes or hugs may accompany these verbal greetings as a sign of respect. In …v… settings, titles such as “Nana” or “Honourable” may be used to address elders or individuals of high stature, while in informal settings, friends and acquaintances may use affectionate terms like “bro” or “sis”.

The warmth of hospitality inherent in Ghanaian greetings reflects the country’s rich cultural values of community and respect for others.

WRITING

1. What sensory details can you include to paint a vivid picture of a bustling market? Describe the sights, sounds, and smells that would immerse the reader in this setting.

2. How would you describe a character's emotional state using their physical appearance and actions? Provide specific examples that illustrate their feelings without directly stating them.

3. Imagine a serene forest at dawn. What descriptive language would you use to convey the atmosphere and mood of this scene? Include elements of nature that enhance the imagery.

4. In what ways can the use of figurative language, such as metaphors and similes, enhance your descriptive writing? Provide examples of how these devices might deepen the reader's understanding of a setting or character.

5. How can the structure of a descriptive piece affect the reader's experience?

Discuss how the order of details might influence the mood or tone of your writing.

6. What role does word choice play in creating a specific atmosphere in your descriptive writing? Analyse how different adjectives or verbs can change the perception of a scene or character.

7. Write an introductory paragraph on any event you have ever attended.

LITERATURE

1. State a difference between a monologue and a dialogue.

2. List two types of monologues and two types of dialogues.

REFERENCE

• The LION and THE Jewel GLOSSARY _(Phrase) A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit in a sentence.

Balcony An extension of a building, especially outside a window.

Museum A dedicated structure or building where many different objects or things are kept for research or study.

Summer This is one of the longest and hottest seasons or days of the year.

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS

In the previous section, you were exposed to the use of formal language. In that lesson, you realised that the same words and expressions are not used in all contexts or situations. When the context is professional or official, formal language is used to suit the level of formality of the context. Today, you will bobe introduced to the informal use of language and the contexts within which they can be used.

Informal Use of Language

They are expressions used in everyday conversations. It is the language most commonly used by people including the educated. Also, it is the language most commonly used in schools, shopping malls or on a bus; for writing contemporary novels, short stories and plays. This is because the conventions of informal language are not as rigid as those of formal – Sentences may be long or short and may mimic everyday discourse.

Features of Informal Language

₁. It is used in casual, social or personal settings.

2. It is characterised by subjective tone, simple vocabulary and relaxed grammar and syntax.

3. Slangs, colloquialisms, jokes and contractions (e.g. isn’t, wasn’t etc.) are used.

4. The language is friendly and conversational.

Informal situations include a visit to the zoo, castle, church, an excursion, social media posts, text messages, conversations with friends, blog posts, etc.

Examples of informal language:

1. In greeting a friend or a younger brother, a simple hello or hi will suffice.

2. A social media post: So excited about this new joint venture with Other Business!

Can’t wait for you to see what we’ve been cooking up!

3. A text message: Hey Adam! Hope you doing well. Let’s meet at our usual venue

– discuss tonight.

Other informal expressions:

1. I need to take a leak

2. I am going to the washroom

3. Break a leg

4. Reach a decision

Activity 7.7

1. You are in your classroom and there’s no teacher, but you would want to visit the ‘restroom’. What would you say to a friend before you leave so that should there be a roll call, he/she will be able to explain your absence?

Dramatise this scenario.

a. Given the same setting as a teacher in class, what would you say to the teacher?

2. On your own, write down two general sentences each you will use when speaking to:

a. Your teacher

b. Your friends

3. Now, join a peer or two. Compare your answers. Find out which of your expressions you consider informal.

This section which covers the areas of Grammar, Writing and Literature will expose you to forms of verbs, introductory and body paragraphs, and creating monologues and dialogues to boost your confidence in the use of language in everyday discourse- speech and writing. The interactive use of 21st-century skills and the instilling of moral values will enhance your participation. The use of interactive puzzles will also make the lessons exciting.

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

• Use forms of verbs in everyday activities (Tense and Aspect).

• Compose introductory and body paragraphs on a given topic.

• Create monologues and dialogues in narratives and plays to make meaning.

Key Ideas

• Tense: Tense is the form of the verb that shows whether an action took place in the past or is taking place in the present or will take place in the future.

• Aspect: Aspect is a property of a verb that shows how the action or state or event indicated by the verb takes place over time.

• Conjugation: It is the process of modifying a verb to indicate tense, aspect, mood, voice, person and number.

• The introductory paragraph of English composition is the first or beginning paragraph in which the main idea to be talked about is identified or stated.

• Body paragraphs are paragraphs that are situated between the introductory and conclusion paragraphs. They provide support to the introductory paragraph.

• A concluding paragraph is a paragraph that sums up all that has been discussed in the entire essay.

• Dialogue-The term ‘dialogue’ is broken down as (di) two and (log) speak.

In Junior High School, you were introduced to verbs as being words that describe a specific action, an occurrence or a word that establishes a state of being. Time is a valuable concept when dealing with verbs. It is an important reference point in our day-to-day lives. Often, we use words (verbs) to reflect time. Thus, understanding the concept of time (tense) and timing (aspect) can help you to communicate effectively, whether sharing stories about your daily routine or about your plan for the future and so on. This lesson explores tense and aspect and how to use them in ways that is clearer and easier to understand.

Tense and aspect are two related but different grammatical concepts that help express time and duration in language.

What is Tense?

Tense is the form of the verb that shows whether an action took place in the past or is taking place in the present or will take place in the future. Simply, tense refers to the time at which an action occurs. There are three types – present, past and future. This is why different tenses change form to reflect the time of action of the verb.

What is Aspect?

Aspect shows how the action/ state/event indicated by the verb takes place over time. It gives extra information that tells us whether the action of the verb is ongoing, repeated, completed or even habitual. In other words, aspect shows the timing of the verb – it describes the duration or completion of an action of the verb. There are three main aspects – simple, progressive and perfect.

Forms Of Verbs

It is important to note that all verbs combine tense and aspects to produce a wide variety of verb forms to help in expressing one’s self accurately in speech and writing.

For example, the verb form simple present is a combination of the present tense form and the simple aspect form.

Base (v) infinitive form It is the verb that has not been conjugated (simply, no change has been done to the verb). It is also called the base form. It begins with the word ‘to’. For example, walk, call, sit, buy, work, drink and jump.

Past (ed₁) It is used to indicate the past tense form of the verb. It is formed by adding –ed to the base form of regular verbs. For example, to walk, to call, to sit, to buy, to work, to drink and to jump.

Participle There are two forms – V+ing and V+ed₂.

V+ing is the continuous or progressive form of the verb. It is formed by adding –ing to the base of the verb. It is used to describe an ongoing action. For example, calling, drinking, calling, sitting, buying, jumping and working.

Regular Verbs take many shapes, based on whether it is called regular or irregular.

Regular verbs follow a predictable pattern, usually by adding specific suffixes to the base form of the verb. For example, adding suffixes –ed or -d to the base form of the verb to form the past tense. These verbs include want, talk, advise and cultivate.

Irregular Irregular verbs do not use the –ed or -d to form their past or perfective forms. For

example, come, eat, go, get, say and write.

Auxiliary Verbs/ Helping

Not all verbs can be on their own in sentences. They need other verbs to bring out their meaning. These verbs that help other verbs (main) to make meaning are called auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs.

Types

1. Primary Auxiliaries: It has three (3) forms – be, have and do. It can be used as a main and an auxiliary verb. For example:

a. That person is responsible. (be)

b. They have homework to do. (have)

c. Ahmed and Emefa did the work themselves. (do)

2. Modal Auxiliaries: Unlike primary auxiliaries, modals can never act as helping verbs. Examples include can/could, will/would, may/might, must, need, shall/should, shall/ought to, must/need/have to.

Types Of Tenses

The Present Tense

It is the base form without any conjugation. The change done to this verb form is merely to reflect agreement between the subject and the verb. For example:

-s/ -es is added to the base for third-person singular pronoun subjects like he/she/it –

1. The officers stand all day. (verb remains same as base form)

2. Mr Mensah gets his supplies from Kukua.

3. He gets his supplies from her. (in ‘b; and c;’, -s has been added to show agreement with the subject) The present tense has the following forms:

a. Simple present tense

b. Present continuous

c. Present perfect

d. Present perfect progressive The Past Tense It indicates that an action has been done in the past. Below are the forms of the past tense:

1. Simple past tense

2. Past continuous

3. Past perfect

4. Past perfect progressive

Activity 8.1

1. Turn around, call a friend and engage in a conversation with them using the questions below:

a. What do you do every morning when you wake up?

b. What are you doing now?

c. What did you do, especially, yesterday?

d. What were you doing at 8 am last night?

e. What will you do tomorrow?

f. What will you be doing over the weekend?

g. What have you done so far today? (Write this in a sentence and underline the verb)

h. What have you been doing for the past hour? (Write this in a sentence and underline the verb) NB: Expected answers should be word(s) suggesting activities.

2. Join your friend(s) to ask yourselves the following:

a. Are all the verbs you have used to answer the questions showing

activities done at the same time?

b. Write down the various time(s) you adduce from your answers in ‘1’ above. Show with examples.

c. Select at least three of the verbs you used to answer the questions in ‘1’ and act them out to your friend(s) or family members. You can let your friend(s) or family members do the same. Have fun!

3. Take turns with your friend to ask and answer questions using do, have and be. What did you observe with the way you used the verbs? Take a look at the sample below to guide you:

Question: Who is your favourite teacher? (be) Expected Response: Mr Mustapha/Ms Agbeli is my favourite teacher.

Question: How many siblings do you have? (have) Expected Response: I have two siblings.

Question: What do you do in your free time? (do) Expected Response: I do read in my free time.

4. With a peer (s), form sentences with the following words: can/ could, will/ would, may/ might, must, need, shall and should. You can have fun by making it a question-and-answer session.

This sample will guide you:

Can you speak any other Ghanaian Language apart from yours?

Yes. I can speak two other Ghanaian Languages apart from mine.

a. What did you observe with the way the verbs have been used?

b. Use this as a guide for what to do:

c. Can is not the main verb in both sentences. It is helping another verb speak. This makes can an auxiliary verb.

d. What again do you observe about the use of the group of verbs in ‘3’ which is different from the use of those in ‘4’?

Activity 8.2

1. Read the dialogue below with a friend. Add a bit of drama to make it fun.

Abu: Hey, Akua! What are you doing today?

Akua: I’m studying for my exams, which are starting tomorrow. I’ve been studying for weeks, but I still feel unprepared.

Abu: Don’t worry, you’ll do great! By the way, have you eaten akple with fetridekyi before?

Akua: Yes, I had it last week at Auntie Esinam’s house. She’s been cooking it for her family every Sunday.

Abu: That’s nice! I’ve never had it before, but I’m looking forward to trying it soon. Maybe we can go to your auntie’s house together next Sunday.

Akua: That sounds like a plan! I’ll call her to confirm. She’s always saying woezor to her guests.

Abu: Great! I’m excited. Oh, by the way, what time did you finish studying yesterday?

Akua: I finished around 9 pm. But I’d been studying since morning, so I was quite tired.

Abu: I can imagine! You’ve been working hard. Keep it up, and you’ll achieve your goals!

2. Fill in the empty slots with sentences from the dialogue to represent the verb forms as indicated in the table below.

Simple present Present continuous Present perfect Present perfect continuous Simple past tense Past continuous Past perfect continuous Primary auxiliary Modal auxiliary Hint: See Annex 8.1 for expected answers

GRAMMAR

1. Answer the following questions with the appropriate verb forms.

a. My brother …(sweep)….the compound every morning.

b. I …(drink)……...orange juice yesterday.

c. It…... (not rain)…… next week but it …...(rain)……now.

d. I ….(make sure)…... I …...(see)…… my results before I ….(travel)….tomorrow.

2. Underline the modals and state their functions of each of the modals in the sentences below.

a. May I sleep here?

b. You shall not eat the food.

c. The students can carry that heavy load.

d. You ought to sweep the room.

3. Use the following auxiliaries in sentences of your own: can, might, could, may, should WRITING

1. What is an introductory paragraph?

2. Identify the components of the introductory paragraph.

3. State the key features of an essay in terms of paragraphing.

LITERATURE

1. Compose a short story using either a monologue or a dialogue.

The Simple Present Tense

The simple present tense is one of several forms of tenses in English. It is used to describe habits, unchanging situations, general truths and fixed arrangements. The simple present tense is simple to form. Just use the base form of the verb:

For example: I take You take She takes He takes It takes We take They take.

Note that the third person singular, she/he/it, has an –s at the end.

Forming the simple present tense forms of the verb ‘to think’:

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I think Do I think? I do not think so.

You think Do you think? You do not think so.

He thinks Does he think? He does not think so.

She thinks Does she think? She does not think so.

It thinks Does it think? It does not think so.

We think Do we think? We do not think so.

They think Do they think? They do not think so.

Notes on the Simple Present and Third-Person Singular

1. In the third-person; the verb always ends in –s:

He wants, she needs, and it gives

2. Negative question forms use DOES (=the third person of the auxiliary ‘DO’) + negator + the infinitive of the verb. For example:

He/she wants ice cream. Does he/she want strawberry? He/she does not want vanilla.

Note: The main verb in these sentences do not take the –s inflection because ‘does’ has already taken an inflection.

3. The third-person changes verbs ending in –y to –ies:

Fly changes to flies; cry to cries (as in: it flies; he/she cries)

4. Exception: if there is a vowel before the –y:

Play changes to plays; pray changes to prays (as in: it plays; he/she prays)

5. Add –es to verbs ending in –ss, -x, -sh, -ch, -o:

Pass changes to passes; fix becomes fixes; push becomes pushes; catch becomes catches;

do changes to does; go changes to goes; undergo becomes undergoes (as in: he passes; she fixes; it pushes; it catches; she does; he goes; it undergoes).

Other examples He goes to school every morning.

She understands Ghanaian culture.

It catches the rodents.

The simple present tense is used

1. To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions and wishes. For example:

a. Habits I cycle every day.

They watch television regularly.

Rakia eats only fish and vegetables.

b. Repeated Actions/Events We catch the bus every morning.

It rains every afternoon in the hot season.

They drive to Accra during the harmattan season.

c. General Truth Water freezes at zero degrees.

Her mother is Ghanaian.

The earth revolves around the sun.

Accra is a large city.

2. To give instructions or directions. For example:

a. You walk for two hundred metres, then turn left.

b. Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.

3. To express fixed arrangements, present or future. For example:

a. Your exam starts at 9 am.

b. Their father arrives tomorrow.

c. Our holiday starts on the 26ᵗʰMarch.

4. To express future time, usually but not always after some conjunctions such as after, when, before, as soon as, until. For example:

a. Munira arrives after tomorrow.

b. Henry prepares his supper as soon as he comes home.

c. The minister commissions the 18-unit classroom block next month.

Be careful: The simple present is not used to describe actions actually happening now.

The Present Continuous

The present continuous tense, also called the present progressive, is used to express an action that is still going on at the present moment.

Forming the Present Continuous

The present continuous of any main verb is composed of two parts – the appropriate form of the present tense of the verb ‘to be’ + the present participle of the main verb (simply,

-ing form of the verb). For example: He is talking; She is playing; They are moving and Aba is smiling.

Affirmative Subject + to be + base + ing She is talking Negative Subject + to be + not + base + ing She is not (isn’t) talking Interrogative To be + subject + base + ing Is she talking?

Example: TO GO, present continuous Affirmative Negative Interrogative I am going I am/I’m not going. Am I going?

You are going You are/You’re not going. Are you going?

He/She/It is going. He/She/It is not/ isn’t going. Is he/she/it going?

We are going/ We are not/ aren’t going. Are we going?

You are going. You are not/aren’t going. Are you going?

They are going. They are not/aren’t going. Are they going?

Functions of the Present Continuous

As with all tenses in English, the speaker’s attitude is as important as the time of the action or event. When someone uses the present continuous, they are thinking about something that is unfinished or incomplete. This is why in sports commentary; you hear the present continuous tense such as He is racing down the left wing… being used since the actions are unfinished.

The Present Continuous is used:

1. To describe an action that is on-going. For example:

a. You are using the Internet.

b. You are studying English Grammar.

2. To describe an action that is related to a period of time or a trend. For example:

a. Are you still working for the same company?

b. More and more people are becoming vegetarians.

3. To describe an action or event in the future which has already been planned or prepared. For example:

a. We’re going on holiday tomorrow.

b. I’m meeting my cousin tonight.

c. Are they visiting you next harmattan?

4. To describe a temporary event or situation. For example:

a. He usually plays the drums, but he’s playing the bass guitar tonight.

b. The weather forecast was good, but it’s raining at the moment.

5. To describe habitual behaviour. In this usage, the verb moves with adverbs such as always, forever and constantly. For example:

a. Harry and Sadia are always arguing!

b. You’re constantly complaining about your mother-in-law!

NOTE: Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form. Verbs that express perception or senses, opinions and emotions refer to states rather than actions and hence, are called stative verbs. As a result, they are not used in the continuous form.

Activity 9.8

Join at least a friend and perform the following. These activities will help you understand the concept of the simple present tense.

1. Dramatise daily routines e.g., waking up, eating, going to school.

2. After, read the questions below and think about the appropriate answers.

Then, join a friend to compare your answers, discuss and write them down.

Finally, share the answer with other friends:

a. ‘What do you do at 7am?’ (Sample response: I wake up at 7am.)

b. ‘What do you do after waking up?’

c. ‘How do you go to school every morning?’

3. Dramatise job interviews: Take turns with one of your friends, one as an interviewer and the other as an interviewee. The interviewer should ask the questions below while the interviewee provides appropriate answers. Switch roles.

a. What do you do?’ (Sample response: I am a student)

b. ‘What are your responsibilities?’

4. Act out good habits like exercising and bad habits like biting nails to a friend.

Let your friend do the same.

5. Take turns to ask and answer the questions below:

a. ‘How many days in a week do you exercise?’

b. ‘Why do you bite your nails?’ (Sample response: ‘I bite my nails when I’m nervous’)

Activity 9.9

Perform these activities in Activity 9.8 again with a friend: they will help you understand the concept of the present continuous tense:

1. One friend should act out an office scene – typing, meeting or making phone calls.

• While performing the action, the other friend should ask one dramatising question, ‘What are you doing at the moment?’ Repeat this for every act.

Switch roles.

2. Describe the actions in Figures 9.3, 9.4 and 9.5 below using the present continuous tense:

Figure 9.3

Figure 9.4

Figure 9.5

3. Fill in the blanks in the charts with the appropriate form of the simple present tense.

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I dance Do I dance?

He/She/It does not dance.

We dance Do they dance?

Note the meaning of the following words:

Affirmative: It is a positive sentence, or it expresses agreement.

Interrogative: It is asking a question.

Negative: It is a sentence that shows that a subject does not possess a particular quality.

4. Write down two verbs and add –ing to them to form the present continuous tense. One has been done for you.

Verb + ing Jump Jumping

Activity 9.10

Read the following deceptively simple poem by the American poet Theodore Roethke. In it, the use of verbs is deliberate and powerful; you should consider the impact of the ‘ing’ words in your group. At the end of your careful reading, without consultation, write down why you think the ‘Child is on Top of the Greenhouse’. The different answers should bring further discussions of the psychology revealed here:

Child on Top of a Greenhouse by Theodore Roethke (1942) The wind billowing out the seat of my britches, My feet crackling splinters of glass and dried putty, The half-grown chrysanthemums staring up like accusers, Up through the streaked glass, flashing with sunlight, A few white clouds all rushing eastward, A line of elms plunging and tossing like horses, And everyone, everyone pointing up and shouting!

There are few better examples of how a seemingly straightforward poem can have so many complexities - and with further exploration of the work (here and online) you will find it hard to forget the poem, its context and its images. And present participles will be lodged firmly in your mind.

Under tense and aspect in the previous section, we learned that the simple present tense is used to express habits, universal truths and fixed situations while the present continuous is used to express an action that is still on-going.

In our daily life, we engage in conversations with colleagues and others wherever we find ourselves. Some of these conversations are argumentative in form. With this, because we see our side of the argument as right, we try to persuade or convince our audience (listeners) to accept our opinion/position and reject what our opponent is saying. With this perspective in mind, we are going to focus our discussion on persuasive writing. This form of writing has the main aim of inducing or influencing our audience to support our side of the argument.

In this section, you will also learn about the present perfect and the present perfect continuous tense. The section will also build on what has been learned on Monologues and Dialogues on the sequence of events.

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to

• use forms of verbs in everyday activities.

• develop the sequence of events across texts and how it contributes to meanings

• write a persuasive piece that states and defends a position

Key Ideas

The present Perfect: It is used to describe events completed in the past, though its effect is still felt in the present.

Present Perfect Progressive/Continuous: It is used to show an action that started in the past and is continuing into the present.

Plot: The plot of a work of prose refers to the way and manner in which the events or incidents narrated in the work are arranged.

Persuasive writing is any written work that tries to convince the reader to accept the writer’s opinion or position

Present Perfect

The present perfect tense combines the present tense with the perfect aspect to indicate an action that started further back in the past and continues up to the present time or has connection to the present.

It is formed using the auxiliary verb ‘has' for singular subjects and ‘have’ for plural subjects, plus the past participle of the main verb. For example: The cat has eaten the fish. They have spoken the truth.

Be careful: Do not confuse the present perfect with the past perfect. The past perfect uses ‘had’.

The present perfect tense is used:

1. To describe an action that started in the past and continues till the present:

a. I have written twenty letters this week.

b. They have dug two wells.

2. To describe an action that happened at an unspecified time in the past and have a connection to the present:

a. They have just arrived, so they are tired.

b. I have never travelled to Ziope.

3. To refer to periods of time up to the present. In this usage, it is used with since and for:

a. The old man has lived here since he was a boy.

b. I have been here for eight years.

4. With just, recently, already, yet, still, at last, finally, to describe actions recently completed:

a. The choir has recently sung an anthem.

b. They have just finished the project work.

5. In topical contexts, e.g. broadcasts and newspaper reports.

a. Some villages have been destroyed by storms.

b. Two armed robbers have been arrested.

Present Perfect Continuous

The present perfect continuous is used to show an action that started in the past and is still on-going. For example:

i. She has been waiting for you all day. (meaning; still waiting)

ii. I’ve been working on this report since eight o’clock in the morning. (meaning; still working on the report)

iii. They have been travelling since last October. (meaning; still travelling) It can also be used to refer to actions that have finished, but the speaker is interested in the results:

i. She has been cooking since last night. (evidence; and the food on the table appears steaming)

ii. It’s been raining. (evidence; you can tell because the streets are still wet)

iii. Someone’s been eating my chips. (half of them are gone) Formation of the Present Perfect Continuous The present perfect continuous is made up of two elements: the present perfect of the verb ‘to be’ (have/has been) and the present participle of the main verb (base + ing). Hence, a present perfect continuous sentence will have the structure:

Subject + has/have been + base + ing For example: She has been swimming.

Note: The auxiliary has/have can be contracted with the subject. For example:

a. She’s been swimming.

b. They’ve been worried about the unpredictable weather.

Example: Present perfect continuous, TO SLEEP Affirmative Negative Interrogative I have been sleeping I have not been sleeping Have I been sleeping?

You have been sleeping. You haven’t been sleeping.

Have you been sleeping?

He/She/It has been sleeping.

He/She/It hasn’t been sleeping?

Has he/she/it been sleeping?

We have been sleeping We haven’t been sleeping.

Haven’t we been sleeping?

You have been sleeping. You haven’t been sleeping.

Haven’t you been sleeping?

They have been sleeping. They haven’t been sleeping.

Haven’t they been sleeping?

Exceptions Some stative verbs whose continuous or -ing forms change the meaning of the base form:

Some verbs are not typically used in the continuous form to mean the same as their base forms. They include know, hate, hear, understand, and want. They are normally used in the simple present perfect instead. Bracketed versions below are acceptable for emphasis in context. For example:

1. I've wanted to visit China for years. (I’ve been wanting to visit China for years.)

2. She's known Robert since she was a child.

3. I've hated that music since I first heard it.

4. I've heard a lot about you recently. (I’ve been hearing a lot about you recently.)

5. We've understood everything.

Activity 10.1

1. Act out this scenario with a friend.

You are at a shopping mall, shopping with your friend all day. You then take a break to grab some Jollof rice and fried fish, and Banku and Okra stew at the eatery. As you sit and eat, you start chatting about your experiences.

You will use expressions such as:

Your friend: “You’ve been looking for a new pair of shoes all day and finally, you have found the perfect pair! “How long have you been searching for shoes?”

Your reply: “I’ve been searching for hours, but it was worth it!”

2. Write down the sentences used in the dialogue above under the appropriate heading in the table provided below:

Present Perfect Tense Present Perfect Continuous

3. How is the present perfect tense different from the present perfect continuous tense?

4. Discuss with two of your friends and down your observation(s).

5. Join another friend. Take a cue from points 1 and 2. Write down two sentences each for the present perfect and present perfect continuous tenses.

These sentences should be inspired by the ‘eatery scene’ above.

6. Use the sentences you have compiled and analysed to explain the use of the present perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense.

7. Use the sentences below to show how the present perfect tense is formed.

a. The head teacher has retired.

b. They have broken the pot.

8. Use the sentences below to show how the present perfect tense is formed.

a. The child has been crying all day.

b. Farmers have been commended for their hard work.

We go through a lot of life experiences which we would like to share with our friends and family. These experiences influence our ideas and thoughts. When we speak and write, we connect our thoughts and ideas with words called conjunctions to make our everyday conversations and writings meaningful.

Just as other creatures may have a way of communicating among themselves, we as humans also have ways through which we communicate among ourselves. This communication does not happen accidentally. So, our intent for communicating could either be informing our audience about something or situation, describing something to them, creating a piece of idea for emphasis, or persuading them on an issue or situation. Because communication comes from different perspectives, so do the styles and processes for the various forms of communication.

This section will focus on conjunctions; and how and why cohesive devices are used in compositions.

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to

• use minor word classes in speaking and writing.

• compose texts to compare given issues or situations.

• develop the sequence of events across texts and understand how it contributes to the overall meaning.

Key Ideas

• Minor Word Classes: They are groups of words that have no specific grammatical function and do not carry any significant meaning on their own.

• Conjunctions: They are words that join words or groups of words together.

• Cohesive Devices: These are devices that enable us to shift our attention effectively from one idea to another in our conversations. They help us to link opinions properly in a text or speech to create a unified whole.

• Fiction: Is a prose work about imagined events and characters.

They are groups of words that determine how words are used in grammar. They are also called parts of speech. They are two types – lexical/ form words and minor/ function words.

Minor Word Classes

They are groups of words that have no obvious grammatical function. They do not carry any particular meaning on their own, hence, help meaningful lexical words in sentences.

That is why they are called minor words.

They are also known as closed-class words or function words. They include conjunctions, prepositions, interjections and auxiliaries. Let us begin with conjunctions Conjunctions They are words that are used to join or link words or groups of words together.

Joining words together:

1. Kwasi and Amina are my friends. (and has been used to join two words Kwasi and Amina)

2. The teacher decided to buy a house or a car with his retirement package. (or has been used to join house and car)

3. Neither the teacher nor the student is available. (neither…nor has been used to join teacher and student) Joining groups of words together (ideas)

1. The child got home on time but didn’t meet her parents. but has been used to join two separate ideas/ two groups of words –

a. The child got home on time

b. The child didn’t meet her parents.

These two ideas constitute the groups of words.

2. Kweku is mischievous but he also loves his family. but …also has been used to join –

a. Kweku is mischievous.

b. He loves his family.

3. The woman was promoted because she was good at her work. Because has been used to join –

a. The woman was promoted.

b. She was good at her work.

From the examples above, it is observed that conjunctions are not used in the same way.

While some conjunctions join words or groups of words of equal importance together (and, but), others render other groups of words subordinate (because)as a reason is being offered for the position in the principal clause.

On the other hand, there are those conjunctions that are used in pairs. Depending on the use, conjunctions are named differently.

Types of Conjunctions

₁. Coordinating Conjunctions These conjunctions are used to join words or groups of words with the same grammatical status /rank together. Thus, coordinating conjunctions join, for

example: nouns and nouns; adjectives and adjectives; verbs and verbs; group of words and group of words of equal ranks. They are also called coordinators. They include for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so. (Use the acronym FANBOYS for easy recall). Examples in sentences are below:

Coordinating conjunctions joining words:

a. I will serve my country faithfully and loyally. (two adverbs faithfully and loyally have been joined using and)

b. Do you want to play the hourglass drum or the talking drum? (two nouns, hourglass drum and the talking drum, have been joined with or)

c. The terrorist is wanted dead or alive. (or to join two adjectives, dead and alive)

d. Kumbi is not crying nor laughing. (nor is joining crying and laughing) Coordinating conjunctions joining groups of words:

a. The musician had a sore throat, yet she performed to the admiration of all.

(yet) is joining two groups of words:

i. The musician had a sore throat

ii. …she performed to the admiration of all.

b. I ordered buff loaf, but I was served fish pie.

(but) is joining two groups of words:

i. I ordered buff loaf but

ii. …I was served fish pie.

c. One can travel by road or by air to Kumasi.

(or) is joining:

i. by road

ii. …by air

d. All children love their grandparents for they are kind and caring.

(for) is joining two groups of words

i. All children love their grandparents

ii. …they are kind and caring.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions

They are used to link dependent/subordinate to main/independent clauses (refer to glossary for meaning). This shows that the subordinating conjunction or subordinators do not join clauses of equal status/rank/importance. In other words, one clause may have a higher grammatical rank than the other(s).

They are used to show a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast or some other kind of relationship between the clauses.

Common coordinating conjunctions include because, since, as, although, though, while, whereas, until, if and as if Examples of subordinators in sentences:

i. Although the CEO is young, she makes bold decisions.

ii. Since he won the contract, Mr Adu’s life has changed.

iii. Hajia won the contract because she went through the procurement process.

iv. Until there’s proof, nobody will believe in their innocence.

From the sentences above, it is observed that one group is dependent on the other for meaning. It is also observed that the dependent groups of words begin or end with subordinators as shown below:

i. Although the CEO is young, …

ii. Since he won the contract, …

iii. … because she went through the procurement process.

iv. Until there’s proof, …

Note: Some adverbs function as subordinators: until, after, when, and before.

For example:

i. I’ll keep coming until you grant my request.

ii. They always show up when food is ready.

iii. You have to contribute to the work before you can benefit from it.

3. Correlative Conjunctions

They are pairs of conjunctions that work together. They include either…or, neither…nor both…and, and not only…but also.

Examples of correlative conjunctions in sentences:

i. Neither the chief nor the people were pleased.

ii. Both the teacher and the headmistress visited me at the hospital.

iii. Either you pay me or l’ll report you to the police.

Activity 12.1

1. Join these sentences together –

i. A. I went to Hogbetsotso festival B. I enjoyed the drumming and dancing.

ii. A. I played football.

B. my friends.

iii. A. Maame went to the market and bought cassava and cocoyam.

B. Musa went to the market and bought a prayer mat.

2. What do you observe about the words you used to join A and B?

You have gone to a festival or a friend’s birthday party or a church service or the mosque for compulsory prayers.

a. Share your experiences at any of these functions with a friend. Listen to your friends doing the same.

b. Write down your experiences after sharing with your friend. (in at least five sentences)

c. Join the sentences that are related with the appropriate words (conjunctions).

d. What do you observe? Share your observations with your friends and compare ideas on conjunctions.

3. Do this activity with a friend.

a. Describe Figures 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3 below using conjunctions, and, but, or.

Figure 12.1

Figure 12.2

Figure 12.3

b. Share with your friend what you observe about the use of this type of conjunction.

4. Do this activity with friends or family members or parents. Make it fun.

a. Continue the sentence below five times using each of the conjunctions

– because, although, unless, since and until:

I went to the shop down the street …

b. Share your observations about the use of this type of conjunction.

5. With a friend, use the following matching conjunctions to form sentences:

both…and, not only…but, whether….or. One has been done for you:

a. The teacher asked the student whether they wanted to go to the park or to the library.

Underline the conjunctions in the following sentences:

1. Dovlo and his pet will be here soon.

2. Ali is brilliant but very arrogant.

3. Ama, though respectful, can sometimes be annoying.

4. Connect phrases and clauses with the appropriate conjunctions from the table below to form sentences:

Phrases/Clauses Conjunctions Phrases/Clauses

The police arrested the thief… … this put him on trial.

Yayra was afraid of heights, … …he managed to climb the mountain.

Adom successfully completed senior high school … … of going to university.

…Lawrence …Fiifi …love to swim.

Conjunctions before, Both…and, and, but

5. Form a sentence with each of the following conjunctions: not only… but also, while, or.

6. Why is it necessary to use linking expressions/cohesive devices in writing or speaking?

7. Identify some linking expressions/cohesive devices that help you to connect ideas in a text or conversation.

8. Narrate to your colleagues, a story that you have ever been told.

9. State five features of a story.

10. a. Plan a Short Story of your own

b. Write the moral lesson of the story.

Extended Reading

• Organised English Grammar and Composition (second edition), John F. Wiredu, pg., 109 – 113

• New Gateway to English for Senior High School, A.B.K. Dadzie and N. Grant, pg. 142

• Ghana Senior Secondary School English book one, Prof. Naa Afarley Sackeyfio et al, pg. 167 – 172

• Warriner’s English Grammar and Composition (fifth course). John E. Warriner, pg.

19 – 20 References

• Murphy, R. (2019). English Grammar in Use (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Carter, R., et al; McCarthy, M. (2020). Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press.

• Azar, B. S., et al; Hagen, S. A. (2021). Understanding and Using English Grammar (5th ed.).

Pearson Education.

• Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Wiredu. F. J, (1992). Organised English Structure, with A Self-Study and Practice Book for students of Training colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities: Academic Publications Accra.

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS

Today, we are going to explore two exciting aspects of language – determiners and interjections. When you go to a market near you like Makola or Kejetia, you use words like ‘this’ or ‘that’ to point out specific things. Don't you? You exclaim ‘Akwaaba!’ when you welcome a friend or ‘Wow!’ when you watch a thrilling football match. While knowledge of determiners will help you specify which person, place or thing you are talking about, knowledge of interjections will help you express strong emotions. As a result, you will be able to communicate more effectively and add flavour to your language.

By the end of this section, you should be able to

• Use minor word classes in speaking and writing

Key Ideas

• Determiners: They are words used before nouns to clarify them.

• Interjections: They are words used to express emotions.

Activity 14.1

1. Join a friend or two to undertake this activity. Read the sentences below and circle all the nouns with a pencil:

a. This book is mine.

b. Your book is with me

c. All the learners are present.

d. That car is expensive

e. Both oranges are rotten.

f. The teacher is likeable.

g. Their house is too far.

2. Underline the words before the nouns you circled. What do you observe?

Share your observation with your friend, compare and note them down.

A determiner is a word placed in front of nouns to clarify aspects of the noun. Thus, they help to specify the meaning of the nouns by indicating aspects like quantity, possession, specificity or definiteness. For example, in the sentence, ‘My sister won a scholarship.’, ‘my’ has been used to clarify the noun ‘sister’ to indicate the speaker’s relationship or possession. The speaker is therefore communicating something about his or her sister and no one else.

Activity 14.2

Read the extract below and underline all the determiners. Then, put each of the determiners in the correct category of the table provided below the extract. You might find it helpful to refer to the information on the Types of Determiners below if you experience difficulties.

The government of Ghana has announced that some of the roads in Accra will be closed for repairs. This decision affects all drivers who use those routes every day.

Some residents are unhappy about the situation, but most people agree that the repairs are necessary. The Minister of Transportation said that every effort will be made to complete the work as quickly as possible. In the meantime, commuters are advised to use alternative routes to avoid those areas. Some of the affected roads include the Kwame Nkrumah Circle and the one leading to the Kotoka International Airport. All drivers are warned to be careful and patient during this period.

Types of determiners Examples Articles Demonstratives Possessives Quantifiers

₁. _(Articles) An article is a type of determiner that comes before a noun to indicate whether the noun is specific or general. There are two types – definite article and indefinite article.

a. The Definite Article – the This type of article refers to something specific or known to both the speaker and listener. Examples:

I am reading the book you recommended.

The store has been razed down by fire.

The juice in the fridge is mine.

Note: In these sentences, the has been used to make reference to specific nouns.

b. The Indefinite Article – a, an It refers to a non-specific (general) or an unknown noun.

A is used when the initial sound of the noun is a consonant. Examples:

a cat (initial sound is /k/) a fan /f/ a thread /ɵ/ a phone /f/ It is noted that the initial sounds (not letters) of the nouns are consonants hence, the indefinite article a is used.

On the other hand, if the initial sound of the noun is a vowel, an is used.

Examples:

An apple (initial sound is /ӕ/) An umbrella /ǝ/ An eraser /ɩ/

2. Possessives They are used to show ownership. In other words, they indicate that something belongs to someone or something. Examples of possessives include ‘my, your, his, her, its, our and their’:

Her idea was brilliant.

They watched the game in my house.

Our teacher has been honoured.

3. Quantifiers They are words used to indicate quantity, amount or measurement. They include ‘some, any, no, all, several, little, many and much’:

I left some food for you.

Do you want any fruit?

How much money did you pay for the registration?

Few people attended the meeting.

4. Demonstratives They are words that point out specific nouns to show their proximity (how far or close). They are this, these, that and those.

This book is interesting.

Those cars are expensive.

Make a left at that junction.

These oranges are rotten.

Activity 14.3

Now, compare the answers you provided in the table for Activity 14.2 with the information you have been given above to see if they tally.

Activity 14.4

Play the ‘What do you see?’ game with a friend. Run and stand by an object.

Call your friend to approach you and ask, ‘What do you see?’ Your friend must answer using any of the determiners. Take turns to play this game? Get creative and enjoy! This is how it will look like:

‘What do you see?’ game Player One: Runs and stands under a mango tree, calls Player Two and asks, ‘What do you see?’

Player Two: I see some mangoes on the tree/ some mangoes/ a tree

Activity 14.5

1. Write down the words you will use to express your emotions should you be faced with the following:

a. Someone has just pinched you.

b. You have just won the lottery.

c. Your teacher told a story that left you in stitches.

d. The community gutter stinks.

e. A strange person chasing you with a stick.

2. Compare your answers to those of your friends. Share your observations with each other and with your facilitator.

3. Read the extract below and underline all the interjections.

Wow! What a beautiful kente cloth. My grandmother used to weave these when I was a child. Oh no, I just remembered I left my wallet at home! Thank God, my friend lent me some money. Hallelujah! I can finally buy this cloth.

Oh dear, the price is higher than I expected. Anyway, I’ll take it, it’s worth it!

Alhamdulillah, I’m so grateful for this opportunity.

Interjections are words that are used to express sudden or strong emotions. Thus, they convey feelings of surprise, joy, anger, disgust, excitement or pain. It is important to note that even though Interjections are a part of speech, they have no grammatical relationship with other parts of the sentence. This makes them unique as they often are not inserted into sentences.

Features of Interjections

Here are the key features of interjections - but avoid their over-use in formal written English:

1. Expressive Nature: Interjections primarily express strong emotions, feelings or reactions such as surprise, joy, anger, excitement, disgust, or pain. For example, ‘Wow!’ expresses amazement, and ‘Ouch!’ indicates pain.

2. Grammatically independent: Interjections usually stand alone or are set apart from the rest of a sentence. They don't need to be grammatically connected to other parts of the sentence. For example, ‘Oh no!’ can be used by itself to express concern.

3. Punctuation: In writing, interjections are often followed by an exclamation mark (!) to emphasise the intensity of the emotion. However, they can also be followed by commas or periods, depending on the context and the level of emotion. For instance, ‘Hey, that's mine!’ uses a comma because the emotion is less intense.

Other examples are:

• Yummy, this jollof rice is absolutely delicious!

• Good heavens! That’s the biggest tree I’ve ever seen.

4. Non-Syntactic: Interjections do not play a grammatical role in the sentence structure. They are independent of the syntax of the sentence, meaning they don't fit into the subject-predicate structure. For example, in ‘Wow, that’s amazing!’, the interjection Wow isn't grammatically tied to the rest of the sentence.

5. Brief and Concise: Interjections are typically short, often consisting of just one or two words. For example, ‘Oh!’, ‘Yikes!’, or ‘Hmm’.

6. Spontaneous Use: Interjections are often used spontaneously in conversation, reflecting the speaker’s immediate reaction to something. They are less planned and more instinctive, making them a natural part of speech.

7. Tone-dependent or versatility: The same interjection can be used in different contexts to express various emotions depending on the tone and situation. For

example, ‘Oh’ can express surprise, realisation, or disappointment, depending on how it is used.

8. Cultural Variation and or Universal: Different languages and cultures have unique interjections that may not have direct equivalents in other languages.

Some interjections are culturally specific and can reflect local customs, habits, or expressions. However, some interjections can also be culturally universal.

9. Interjections usually appear at the beginning of a sentence or at the end for examples:

a. ‘Phew, that was close’.

b. ‘Yo, what’s up?’

c. I am so excited to see you tonight, yay!

d. I can’t believe I left my phone home, oh no!

10. Informal: Interjections are often used in informal settings, like conversations with friends or casual writing. While some interjections such as ‘well’ and ‘indeed’ are acceptable in formal conversation, it’s best to avoid interjections in formal or academic writing.

Some interjections and their meanings Interjections Purpose Examples Hurray! Yay!

Woo-hoo!

express joy a. Hurray, we won the game!

b. Yay! I passed the exam.

Wow! Oh! Ah! express surprise a. Wow! The sunset is breath-taking.

b. Oh! I didn’t see you there.

Ugh! Ew! Yuck! express disgust or disapproval

a. Ugh! I can’t stand this weather.

b. Yuck! This food had gone bad.

Damn! Ugh! express anger or frustration

a. Damn! I missed the bus again.

b. Ugh, this problem is so frustrating.

Ouch! Agh! Ah!

Ow!

express pain a. Ouch! I cut my toe.

b. Ow, that was a sharp pain!

Er! Uh! Um! express hesitation or doubt

a. Er, do you really want to do this?

b. Um! Let me think about it.

Hi! Hello! Hey!

Bye! Goodbye!

express greeting or parting

a. HI! How are you today?

b. Hello! Nice to see you again.

c. Hey! What’s up?

Yes! Yeah! Sure!

Absolutely!

express agreement or approval

a. Yes! I agree with your point.

b. Absolutely! Let’s do it.

No! Nah! Nope! express disagreement or disapproval

a. No! I don’t want to go there.

b. Never! I won’t do that.

Oh! Ah! Aha!

Got it!

express realisation or understanding

a. Oh! Now I get it.

b. Aha! So that’s the solution.

c. Got it! I understand what to do.

Hey! Yo! Look!

Listen!

express exclamation or call or greeting

a. Look! There’s a rainbow.

b. Listen! I have something important to say.

c. Hey, over there!

Shh! Hush! Express silence or call for attention

a. Shh! The baby is sleeping.

b. Hush! We need to be quiet now.

Extended Reading

• Wiredu. F.J., (1992). Organised English Grammar with Answers, A Self-Study and Practice Book for Students of Senior High Schools, Training Colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities (2nd ed.): Academic Publications Accra. (Pg. 90 – 92) References

• Wiredu. F.J., (1992). Organised English Grammar with Answers, A Self-Study and Practice Book for Students of Senior High Schools, Training Colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities (2ⁿᵈed.): Academic Publications Accra. (Pg. 81 – 90)

• Sackeyfio, N. A., et al, Ghana Senior Secondary School English Book 1. Oxford University Press. (Pg. 119 – 121)

Underline the determiner(s) in the following sentences.

1. Every student needs a pen for the exam.

2. This is the best movie I’ve ever seen.

3. All the children were excited for the trip.

4. Do you have any questions?

5. Both options are available to you.

6. Write your own sentences using the following determiners:

7. Both, your, many, each and this.

8. In the passage below, there are errors related to determiners. Identify and correct them:

Yesterday, I visited a museum. I saw many interesting exhibits, but the one that caught my attention was the painting by Ablade Glover. I noticed that neither of the guides was available, so I explored the museum on my own. After spending a few hours there I left, feeling inspired by all the arts.

Describe your favourite subject in a paragraph of not more than five sentences.

Complete the sentences with the appropriate interjections from the list: Ouch, Yay, Huh, Ah

9. ……! What did you say?

10. …….! That was a close call.

11. ……..! You won the race.

12. ……..! I’ve figured out the answer.

13.Match the interjection in column A with the emotion of column B.

Column A Column B

Yuck Pain

Ouch Excitement

Hurray Disgust

Wow Surprise

Oh-no Praise

Bravo Fear

14.Read the short paragraph below and insert appropriate interjections in the blanks.

……, today was a tough day at work! First, I spilled my coffee all over my desk.

…….., that was embarrassing! Then, I realised I forgot to bring my lunch. ………, I was so hungry by the afternoon. But …….., the day ended on a good note when I received praise from my boss for completing a difficult project. ,,,,,,,,,,. That made me feel much better.

15.Create a short dialogue with a friend using at least five different interjections.

16.Write a four-paragraph essay on ‘the impacts of COVID 19 on learners’ academic lives in Ghana’. (NB: Make use of a variety of determiners and interjections.)

17.Analyse and state the uses of the various determiners and interjections you have used in your essay in question E above.

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS

We have explored the Grammar of the English Language in previous sections. It is useful to remember that the study of Grammar aims to provide a systematic description of the rules of the language - covering words, sentences and their combination to produce meaning in communication.

Welcome back, learner! Previously, we explored the different parts of speech such as interjections, prepositions, nouns and many more. Today, you are going to learn how to combine parts of speech or words effectively to form meaningful sentences.

Think of walls and bricks. Consider the individual bricks to be the parts of speech and sentences to be the walls. Just as individual bricks need to be put together to build strong walls, good sentences need well-arranged words. This lesson will aid you to understand sentence structure and function better, helping you to use them meaningfully to express yourself clearly and accurately in speech and writing.

By the end of this section, you should be able to

• Identify and use subject and predicate in sentences.

Key Ideas

• The Sentence: It is a group of words that expresses a complete thought and is in its simplest form made up of a subject and a predicate. It begins with a capital letter, and ends with a full stop, an exclamation mark or a question mark.

• The Subject: It is the part of the sentence which ‘controls’ the verb. Usually, it is at the beginning of a sentence and is the person or thing that is doing the action.

• Predicate: It is the part of the sentence that contains the verb and often says something about the subject.

• Elements: Elements are the essential constituents of a sentence that work together to convey meaning.

Activity 19.1

1. Perform any ONE of these activities and note down what you said to the other party to get what you wanted:

a. Ask for something from your parent.

b. Buy a sachet of water.

c. Call a sibling or a friend to join you for food.

2. What do you observe? This is more fun when you do ‘Activity 1.1’ with two other friends so you can compare your notes after the activity as it will give you a clearer perspective. This is important for feedback.

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought or idea. It begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).

Thus, after these punctuation marks, the next word must begin with a capital letter. The sentence must be clear and grammatically meaningful. Examples:

a. Can you help me with my project work?

b. I’d like to buy a sachet of water.

c. Kojo, let’s eat!

Activity 19.2

1. In this activity, there are two groups of flash cards. One after another, choose a card from each group and join them meaningfully. You can do this with a friend.

2. What do you observe differently about the flash cards of Group A and Group B? Note down your observations and share them with your peers.

A sentence is made up of two parts namely, the subject and the predicate.

The Subject

It is the part of the sentence about which something is said. For example:

a. The children sleep on the mat.

In this example, should someone ask, ‘Who sleeps on the mat?’, the logical answer will be ‘The children’. This makes ‘The children’ the subject since it is what is being talked about in the sentence.

Other examples:

b. In spite of their hard-work, their employer never appreciated them. (Question:

Who never appreciated them? A: their employer – the subject)

c. Dancing is the hobby of most young adults. (Question: What is the hobby of most young adults? A: Dancing – the subject) Types of Subjects There are three forms namely simple, compound and complex subjects.

1. The Simple Subject: It is made up of one word.

Examples:

Iddrisu is a doctor.

Phones are helpful devices.

2. The Compound Subject: It is made up of two or more words that are joined by conjunctions like and, but, and or. Compound subjects joined by ‘and’ take plural verbs.

Examples:

Senam, Kukua and Mohammed are my friends.

Sandra, together with her friends, has finished the assignment.

John or Mary will represent the team.

3. The Complex Subject: It is the subject that uses modifiers to add information to the simple subject. Because of the complex nature of this subject, it is tricky to form sentences with them, as you must be careful to identify the headword of the complex subject in order to choose the right verb that will agree with it.

Consider the sentence: The books on top of the shelf are mine. When the Question: What is mine is asked, the appropriate answer will be ‘The books on top of the shelf’ or simply ‘The books.’ But simply answering the question with ‘The books.’ is not enough as there might be other books on the shelves. To distinguish those that are mine from those that are not, ‘on top of the shelf’ is used to make ‘The books’ you are referring to definite. A plural verb, ‘are’ instead of is, is used since the headword - ‘books’ - is plural.

Other examples:

a. The team that won the championship is celebrating.

b. The bread covered in eggs and sesame seeds is tasty.

The Predicate

The predicate is the part of the sentence that contains the verb and gives information about the subject. It expresses what the subject does, is or experiences. Note that a predicate can be made up only of a verb group. For example:

a. Dogs bark.

b. The dog barks whenever there is an intruder.

c. My mother always tells interesting stories.

Activity 19.3

1. This activity is called ‘The Sentence Hunt’ game. Form two teams of three members. Your task is to collect different words from the scrambled flash cards you have been given to form sentences. Display them under different word zones namely Noun Shrine I, Verb Mosque, Noun Shrine II, Adjective Avenue and Adverb Church.

The team that completes the activity first wins. Get creative! Determine a reward for the winning team before the start of the game.

Here is a sample.

Adverb Church // Noun Shrine I // Verb Mosque // Adjective Avenue

2. Still in your teams, further display over your word zones the following element headings: Subject, Verb, Object, Complement and Adjunct.

Let this note be your guide:

i. Subject (s) – Noun Shrine I

ii. Verb (V) – Verb Mosque

iii. Object (O) – Noun Shrine II (after action verbs)

iv. Complement (C) – Adjective Avenue, Noun Shrine II (after linking verbs)

v. Adjunct – Adverb Church Adjunct Subject Verb Complement Look carefully at the example above.

What is the link between the part of speech and the type of element? Note down your observations. Share with your friends.

Elements of the Sentence

Elements of the sentence are the essential constituents of the sentence that work together to convey meaning. Each element plays a specific role in constructing a complete and clear sentence. The elements are Subject (S), Verb (V), Object (O), Complement (C) and Adjunct (A). Apart from Subject (S) the other four (4) elements form part of the predicate. Hence, sentences are formed by combining S with one or more of the elements of the predicate.

Note that it is mandatory to have V in a sentence.

Subject (S): It is the element which represents the performer of the action in the sentence.

The subject is represented with S in the following examples:

i. My friend (S) likes playing pranks on people.

ii. All the eggs (S) are spoiled.

iii. The dog (S) pounced on the cat.

iv. They (S) made the class prefect captain of the team.

Verb (V): It is the element which describes the action in the sentence.

For example:

i. My friend likes (V) playing pranks on people.

ii. All the eggs are (V) spoiled.

iii. The dog pounced (V) on the cat.

iv. They made (V) the class prefect the captain of the team.

Object (O): It is the element that receives or is directly affected by the action. It is the noun that follows the action verb.

For example:

a. The students elected the school prefect (O).

b. They took my dictionary (O).

c. We carried the firewood (O) to the market.

Complement (C): This element refers to another element already mentioned in the sentence. In other words, complement provides additional information about the subject, verb or object which is important to the meaning of the sentence. Complements sometimes follow linking verbs such as be, look, seem, appear, appoint and elect.

For example:

a. We are students (C).

b. The flowers smell beautiful (C).

c. They elected him school prefect (C).

Adjunct (A): This element provides extra information which is not vitally important to the basic meaning of the sentence. It can therefore be removed without changing the intended meaning of the sentence. Usually, adverbs and prepositional phrases are adjuncts. For

example:

a. We carried the firewood to the market (A).

b. They hurriedly (A) walked to the ICT laboratory (A).

c. The children sang on the way home (A).

Let us consider the elements of the following sentences:

1. The tall tree// is //behind the building.

S V A

2. His son// became /a fashion designer.

S V C

3. The doctor// discharged //the patient.

S V O

4. Certainly, // I //am going to sleep.

A S V

5. It //will rain// tonight.

S V A

Activity 19.4

1. Embark on these Sentence Building activities with/without a friend.

2. Consider the two groups of clauses in the table below; which group expresses a complete thought?

3. Change the heading of ‘Clause 1’ or ‘Clause 2’ to ‘Simple Sentence’ if the clauses under them are meaningful.

4. What else do you observe about the structure of the clause group you have captioned ‘Simple Sentence’?

Clause 1 Clause 2

The sun rises in the east Before I go to bed Ghana gained independence in 1957 Until the sun goes down The learner is doing the homework Because of the injury

Activity 19.5

1. In this activity of Sentence Building, you have been given two groups of clauses. Combine them using coordinators and, but, or to form compound sentences.

What do you observe about the structure of this kind of sentence formation?

Clause 1 Clause 2

Ghana is a country in West Africa The capital city is Accra I had brushed my teeth I was forced to eat something I will start my business I will work for my mother I will travel to seek greener pasture

2. In this activity of sentence building, you are to join clauses from ‘Clause 1’ to clauses from ‘Clause 2’ to form complex sentences.

What do you observe about the structure of the complex sentence?

Clause 1 Clause 2

I brush my teeth Because of the injury The coach did not include the player in the list Since they were rotten All the oranges were thrown away Before I go to bed

3. In the final activity of sentence building, you have been given two groups of clauses. Join them to form compound-complex sentences.

Write down your observations about the structure.

Clause 1 Clause 2

I had brushed my teeth but was forced to eat something Because I was too hungry I went to the store and bought some eggs Because my father asked to do so.

I saw my friends and we decided to buy some food While I was walking to school

Activity 19.6

1. Read the paragraphs and write out all the sentences. Group them under the headings simple, compound, complex and compound-complex as labelled in the table below.

Ghana, formerly known as the Gold Coast, has a rich and diverse history.

While the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Ghana in the 15ᵗʰcentury, they were soon followed by other European powers, including the British, Dutch and Germans. Because it is strategically located and has abundant natural resources, Ghana became a major hub for the transatlantic slave trade; however, this period of oppression had a profound impact on the country’s development. After centuries of colonial rule, Ghana finally gained independence on March 6, 1957, and Kwame Nkrumah became its first president. Since then, Ghana has continued to grow and evolve, while becoming a stable democracy and a leader in West African politics.

Ghana’s rich history dates back to the ancient Ghana Empire. Founded around 300 CE, this powerful kingdom played a significant role in the trans-Saharan trade, connecting West Africa to the Mediterranean region. As European explorers arrived, Ghana’s strategic location made it a prized colony; however, the Portuguese, British, Dutch and Germans fought for control. The scramble for Ghana led to the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, where European powers divided Africa among themselves. Ghana’s struggle for independence began in the mid- 20ᵗʰcentury, led by visionaries like Kwame Nkrumah and J.B. Danquah.

The first one for each type has been done for you. Let it guide you.

Sentence Type Examples

Simple 1. Ghana, formerly known as the Gold Coast, has a rich and diverse history.

2.

3 Compound 1. After decades of colonial rule, Ghana finally gained independence on March 6, 1957, and Kwame Nkrumah became its first president.

2.

3.

Complex 1. While the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Ghana in the 15ᵗʰcentury, they were soon followed by other European powers, including the British, Dutch and Germans.

2.

Compound - Complex

1. Because it is strategically located and has abundant natural resources, Ghana became a major hub for the transatlantic slave trade; however, this period of oppression had a profound impact on the country’s development.

2.

Sentences have different structures and are used for varied purposes. Consequently, the sentence pattern is broadly grouped under structural and functional types.

Structural Types of Sentences

The structural type of a sentence refers to the way a sentence is constructed based on the number and types of clauses it contains. Clauses are groups of words that contain a subject and a predicate. There are four types of structural types of sentences.

1. Simple Sentence

It is a sentence that contains one independent or main clause. This means that a simple sentence has one subject and one predicate and expresses a complete thought. Examples:

a. My parents are honest.

b. Too much salt is bad for your health.

c. You must be ambitious!

Each of these sentences has only one subject and a predicate. Hence, they are all simple sentences.

2. Compound Sentence

It is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses joined by coordinators and, but and or. These clauses can also be joined by a semi-colon.

Examples:

a. I wanted to go to the farm, but it began to rain.

b. My father cooked jollof rice for the family gathering and everyone enjoyed it.

c. I can take a taxi to work or drive my car.

d. My sister prefers to wear traditional clothing or modern African prints.

e. The traffic in Kumasi is terrible; it takes hours to commute.

f. My cousins are twins; both study at University of Development Studies; the male twin is majoring in Computer Science while the female twin is majoring in Actuarial Science.

Note: Apart from the last sentence which has three independent clauses, each of the other examples above contains two independent clauses variously joined by and, but, or and semicolon. Each of these clauses can be expressed alone as separate sentences.

3. Complex Sentence

This sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent/ subordinate clauses. Although a dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, it cannot stand alone as a sentence. To be meaningful, they rely on the independent clause. Dependent clauses begin with subordinators such as while, after, when, although and because.

Examples:

a. I will go out when it stops raining.

b. After graduating from Senior High School, I plan to pursue a degree in Nursing.

c. Because I forgot my lunch, I had to buy food from the cafeteria.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence

It has two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. The clauses are joined together with coordinators and subordinators. The compound- complex sentence, therefore, combines the structure of both the compound and complex sentences.

Examples:

a. She is learning to play guitar; even though she finds it difficult, she practises daily.

b. While I was studying for my exams, I realised that I needed to focus on science;

my friends however were struggling with mathematics.

c. After I wake up, I go for a run; however, the traffic in town makes it difficult for me to find a safe route.

5. 1 Do this Real-Life Scenario Activity alone and later with your peers.

a. Write a sentence to reflect each of these scenarios:

i. Expressing excitement

ii. Ordering food

iii. Asking directions

iv. Giving directions

b. Compare your sentences with your peers’ sentences. Together, group your sentences and that of your peers in different groups based on the function of the sentence i.e. Questions, Statements, Exclamation and Commands.

c. Explain to your friends your reason for the grouping.

5. 2 Act out the real-life scenarios in ‘Activity 5.1a.’ using your written sentences.

Functional Types of Sentences

Sentences can be grouped based on the purpose of the sentence in communication. There are broadly four functional types of sentences namely declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.

1. Declarative Sentence

A declarative sentence makes a statement and is used to provide information, give opinion or state a fact. It simply tells something to the reader or listener.

Examples:

a. She loves to watch movies.

b. He is not sociable.

c. The sun sets in the west.

2. Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence asks questions. Hence, it ends with a question mark (?).

This type of sentence seeks information and is usually introduced by words such as why, where, when, what, how or who.

Interrogative sentences are used to obtain information or response or clarification from the reader or listener.

Examples:

a. Why are you late?

b. What time did the meeting end?

c. How do I get to the party?

d. Where did you go when the visitor arrived?

e. Whom did you give my book to?

Note that interrogative words are not the only means of asking questions.

Sometimes, there is a process called inversion. Inversion is the process of reversing the order of the subject and the auxiliary verb. This is where the first auxiliary (i.e.

the first verb element) is placed before the subject.

Examples:

Statement/Declarative Inverted form (Interrogative)

a. It is raining outside. Is it raining outside?

b. You finished your homework. Have you finished your homework?

c. You know the answer. Do you know the answer?

NB: It is important to note that some statements do not have auxiliary verbs that can be inverted to form interrogative sentences. When converting such statements into interrogatives, the “dummy DO” concept must be applied. This is where the appropriate form of the verb ‘do’ becomes the operator in the interrogatives during the conversion of declaratives when there is no auxiliary verb in the original declarative or statement.

Examples Declarative/Statement Inversion (Interrogative)

a. He knows the answer. Does he know the answer?

b. They want more food. Do they want more food?

c. He went to the movies. Did he go to the movies?

3. Imperative Sentence

This sentence type is used to give commands, instructions or make requests. It can end with a full stop (.) or an exclamation mark (!) when it is expressing urgency.

Depending on the tone, imperative sentences can be polite or forceful. The subjects of imperative sentences are usually implied (they are not stated).

The subject/listener is expected to take action.

Examples:

a. Stop talking and listen to me!

b. Write your name and index number on top of the paper.

c. Kindly close the door.

In these examples, it can be observed that in as much as the speaker is addressing someone, that subject is not stated; it is merely implied – YOU.

4. Exclamatory Sentence

It is a sentence that expresses strong emotion such as surprise, anger, joy or excitement. It always ends with an exclamation mark (!).

Examples:

a. I can’t believe we won!

b. How could you betray my trust!

c. I got the job!

d. This is going to be the best vacation ever!

Identify the sentences among the following options.

1. Because I woke up late

2. Ghana is a West African country.

3. What a beautiful day!

4. Under the bridge

5. If I had studied smarter.

Identify the subject and the predicate.

6. The food on the table belongs to your younger sibling.

7. I gave the teacher my homework.

8. The junior wearing the school uniform directed me to the library.

9. Quickly, we submitted our project work.

10.The capital of Volta Region is Ho.

Identify the elements which make up each of the sentences below:

11.The chef cooked the guests a delicious meal.

12.They offered me a job.

13.The dog barked loudly.

14.The car stopped abruptly.

15.The children are playing in the park.

16.The president appointed my mother a minister.

17.My father is a nurse.

Identify whether each sentence is simple, compound, complex or compound-complex 18.She will come if you invite her.

19.And the rain fell.

20.When the sun sets, we shall go for a walk and you can join us.

21.He likes reading books because they are interesting.

22.Philip is shy but Phyllis is outspoken.

Combine the sentences to form a compound or complex sentence 23.He didn’t study for the exam. He failed.

24.I like Banku. I don’t like Kenkey.

25.The car broke down. I called a mechanic.

26.She was tired. She went to bed early.

27.It was raining. We went to the park.

Rewrite the following as compound-complex sentences 28.He finished the homework. He went to the gym. His friends joined him later.

29.She was late for school. She missed the bus. Her mother drove her.

30.The storm passed. The sun came out. We went outside.

Identify whether each sentence is declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamatory 31.Please close the door when you leave.

32.I can believe I passed the test!

33.How did you solve that Maths equation?

34.That is the school library.

35.Cholera can kill.

Extended Reading

• Wiredu. F.J., (1992). Organised English Grammar with Answers, A Self-Study and Practice Book for Students of Senior High Schools, Training Colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities (2ⁿᵈed.): Academic Publications Accra. (Pg. 81 – 90) References

• Wiredu. F.J., (1992). Organised English Grammar with Answers, A Self-Study and Practice Book for Students of Senior High Schools, Training Colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities (2ⁿᵈed.): Academic Publications Accra.

• Sackeyfio, N. A., et al, Ghana Senior Secondary School English Book 1. Oxford University Press.

Glossary Headword is the primary word in a phrase or clause that determines the grammatical function and meaning.

Modifiers are words that add detail and often describe the headword in a sentence.

A Prepositional Phrase begins with a preposition followed by a pronoun or noun or noun phrase.

Operator In grammar, operator is a word or a phrase that performs a specific function in a sentence or a clause, often related to negation, modality, or focus.

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS