Production and Distribution of Text

The conversations you have with friends or colleagues often focus on specific topics or ideas. In written communication, paragraphs are used to discuss broader topics or ideas containing smaller ideas; these are presented in paragraphs. In written English, cohesive devices like “first and foremost,” “not all,” “furthermore,” and “however” connect these paragraphs to convey messages effectively.

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Use an extended range of cohesive devices (connectors or linking expressions) to improve paragraph coherence.

Key Ideas

• Cohesive devices are the expressions used to ensure coherence or the free flow of thought from the beginning to the end of a text. These devices help the writer to effectively link or connect ideas in the paragraphs to form a whole text.

• A paragraph is a group of sentences that focus on a particular idea. It is made up of a topic sentence and support sentences (major and minor sentences).

Activity 2.2

1. Write down what you know about a paragraph and cohesive devices in your own words. Compare your response to the short note below.

Cohesive devices, also called transitional devices, are words or expressions used to ensure that a passage has a logical and smooth flow of thought from beginning to end.

These devices help writers connect paragraphs effectively. They are used when shifting attention from one idea to another. These connectors or meaning markers show the relationship between ideas to help readers understand the written or discussed content.

Fig 2.2 Cohesive devices Types of Cohesive Devices There are many types of these devices, used in various situations, to indicate the start of a text, show comparison of ideas, contrast ideas, provide reasons, display results, emphasise a point, draw a conclusion, add information, illustrate a point, and more.

Examples of the devices include ‘first and foremost’, ‘in the first place’, ‘furthermore’, ‘in addition’, ‘in a nutshell’, ‘in contrast’, ‘however’, ‘for instance’, ‘indeed’, and so on.

Here are some frequently used cohesive devices and the type of relationship they show:

1. Compare ideas or things: e.g. Similarly, Likewise, Like, In the same way, Equally, Also, In a similar vein...

2. Show concession or unexpected contrast: e.g. But, yet, anyway, although, nevertheless, at any rate, though, however, even though, all the same, still, anyhow, despite...

3. Contrast ideas or things: Counter to, on the other hand, as opposed to, by comparison, in contrast, conversely, instead, in contrast...

4. Explain or give reason: Since, due to, because (of), to clarify, for, to explain, owing to...

5. Show result or a consequent action: As a result, consequently, in response, so, therefore, because, thus, for, hence, since...

6. Emphasise a point: Indeed, In fact, To emphasise, Certainly, Surely, Actually, Again, As a matter of fact...

7. Sum up or conclude: Finally, In summary, In short, To conclude, To sum up, In brief, In conclusion, All in all, Therefore, In sum, Thus, Altogether, On the whole...

8. For enumeration or sequence, to show continuity or add information: Again, further, moreover, likewise, also, furthermore, above all, in addition, further, next to, (far) more, importantly, additionally, besides, lastly, first/secondly, next, finally…

9. To show illustration: To illustrate, in illustration, to cite an instance, to exemplify, for example, to clarify, for instance, namely, in other words...

10. To show time and sequence: Now, soon, before, yesterday, then, earlier, later on, later, soon, afterwards, immediately, at the same time, prior to… Paragraph Development A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops a particular idea or subject. It contains the topic sentence (the main idea on which the entire paragraph is developed), the supporting sentences (the sentences that explain the main idea further) and the concluding sentences. The supporting sentences are made up of explanations, examples, scenarios and so on, which build up the paragraph. The topic sentence can be placed at the beginning of the paragraph, in the middle, or at the end of the paragraph.

In other words, a paragraph is a group of sentences that focus on a single idea. A paragraph is not just a mere putting together of sentences, these sentences are put together to give unity and coherence in the development of the paragraph.

NOTE: A paragraph is not just the large space we leave between lines when we are writing. A paragraph is created when we are shifting focus from an idea under discussion to a new idea. The space we leave before writing is only to serve as a pointer to the new paragraph.

Paragraph development, therefore, is the effective and orderly presentation of sentences that help readers clearly understand the idea being discussed.

A paragraph is made up of three parts:

1. Introduction of the paragraph: This contains the subject matter or the main idea of the whole paragraph. It indicates the reason for the paragraph.

2. Body of the paragraph: This comprises supporting sentences that support the main statement.

3. Conclusion sentence: This indicates that the paragraph has come to an end.

Fig 2.3 Paragraph development

Activity 2.3

Read the passage below in groups and carry out the activities that follow:

Although the International Labour Organisation has established the principle that childhood should be devoted to education, not to work, child labour is prevalent in most parts of the world, especially developing countries. Sometimes, children as young as ten years are delivered into slavery, where they are forced to work, sometimes under conditions that threaten their lives.

This situation has risen because of the factors governing the supply of and demand for child labour. One factor that is responsible for the supply of child labour is extreme poverty suffered by families due to lack of economic growth and unfair distribution of national income.

To many of the families, sending their children to school is a dream; they cannot afford it. This is worsened by the shortfall in education systems; there are not enough schools, while those that exist are far from where the children live. Added to this, there is a shortage of teachers.

Besides, there is a ready market for child labour; private and company bosses have interest in it.

In the first place, children cost less in terms of wages than adults. Also, children are manageable compared to adults; bosses find children a blessing to handle.

They do anything they are ordered to do, whether legal or risky. Children are easily dismissed should the business slacken. They do not belong to any trade union to come to their aid, even if it means going to court. Hence, they cannot organise strike action against the company, or claim any compensation. In fact, in many countries there is no legislation against child labour, even where it exists it is not enforced. There are many employers which use the services of child labour across many economic activities and get away with it.

1. Collaborate with your group members to identify the cohesive devices that have been used in the passage.

2. Compare your findings with other groups’ findings, and orally present it in class.

3. Use the devices identified to appropriately develop a passage on a topic of your choice.

Activity 2.4

Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with appropriate cohesive devices/transitional words.

a. My mobile phone fell into the water…… (when/while) I was crossing the river.

…… (since/also) I will be going to market tomorrow my father would give me money today.

b. My mother is a teacher……. (so/but) my father is a farmer.

c. The printers are on strike; ….. (nevertheless/moreover) the students will receive course packages on time.

Activity 2.5

Rearrange the following sentences in the paragraph below to make them more meaningful.

Consequently, road accidents result in significant economic losses, impacting individuals, families, and society as a whole Every year, people lose their lives due to reckless driving, over speeding, and other avoidable factors.

To reduce road accidents, strict traffic laws and regulations must be enforced.

Moreover, drivers should wear seat belts and ensure all passengers do the same.

Road accidents are a leading cause of death and injury nationwide, affecting people of all ages.

Additionally, pedestrians and cyclists must be mindful of their surroundings and follow traffic rules.

The impact of road accidents extends beyond physical harm, causing emotional trauma and long-term psychological distress.

Drivers should avoid distractions while driving, such as using mobile phones or eating.

Safe driving practices, including defensive driving and maintaining vehicle safety, are crucial.

Therefore, it is essential for drivers, pedestrians, and authorities to work together to prevent road accidents.

Compare your responses with your classmates for peer review.

Activity 2.6

Write a three paragraph essay on 'the importance of education'. Use appropriate cohesive devices to connect the ideas.

Activity 2.7

Read the following extract and do the activity.

1. Identify the transitional devices used in the paragraph below and explain how they help to keep the sequence of thoughts moving smoothly through the paragraph.

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is a suitable material for jewellery, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful and valuable forever. For

example, a Ghanaian coin remains attractive from the day it was minted– twenty-three centuries ago. Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been in hundreds of industrial applications.

For one to appreciate or understand what we communicate to them, there is the need for us to carefully and effectively present our information such that it is easy to understand. For this, we need to make sure that our communication is such that the pieces of information are properly linked with one another to form a unified whole. For us to have this, we must make sure that our paragraphs are well-developed and properly linked or connected. Based on this, and on our earlier discussions on paragraph development using cohesive devices, we are going to be looking at what we should have in introductory, body, as well as concluding paragraphs for a given topic.

The knowledge of those things will go a long way to help us compose effective and well-connected essays. These paragraphs, together, help us to appreciate the text or essay better.

Introductory Paragraph

The introductory paragraph of English composition is the first or beginning paragraph in which the main idea to be talked about is identified or stated. It is important to have an introduction paragraph at the start of an essay so that the reader knows what to expect in the essay. Without this, the readers will not know what is to be discussed in the essay. The introduction paragraph entices and guides the reader to read the entire essay. A strong introduction paragraph can make the difference between a great essay and a poor one. To create a well-written introduction paragraph, it is important to look at the introduction paragraph structure. You can introduce your essay with a hook. This is the part of the structure that gives information that engages the reader’s attention as to what is expected next. This could be a short story, a famous quote, a question, etc. The second part is the context. This context gives background information that helps connect the reader to the next part. After the context, the thesis follows. This is the central idea of the entire essay. These elements: hook, context (background information), and thesis, together create a good introductory paragraph.

Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs are paragraphs that are situated between the introductory and conclusion paragraphs. The body paragraphs are very crucial parts of standard essays because they (paragraphs) provide support to the introductory paragraph. The body paragraphs contain what is known as topic sentences. These sentences are those in which the main ideas of the paragraphs are found. The sentences make readers know what to expect in each paragraph. A good body paragraph should contain the topic sentence (the sentence that contains the main idea of the paragraph), the supporting sentences (these give further clarification on the topic sentence), and the concluding sentence (to indicate the end of the speech).

Concluding Paragraphs

A concluding paragraph is a paragraph that sums up all that has been discussed in the entire essay. Just as the name suggests, it brings what is being discussed to a close or to an end. In this paragraph, the writer or speaker states or paraphrases the central idea and the supporting ideas to serve as a reminder to the audience of what has been discussed at length in the body paragraphs. This serves as a summary of the entire essay. Some of the transitional words or expressions the writer may use to show or indicate that the essay is ending include finally, to sum up, in conclusion, to finalise, to end, etc.

Activity 8.3

1. Read the following passage carefully and perform the activities that follow.

As has been the case for many years, jobs, or forms of employment wherein employees perform a service or duty in exchange for financial compensation, play an important role in society. Furthermore, all jobs are important, as they simply would not exist if their specific responsibilities were not of value to employers (companies or persons that pay others for their work), customers (individuals who pay money for a product or service), and the economy generally.

Teachers, or educational professionals tasked with helping students understand certain subjects and topics, are especially crucial today. In short, teachers help their students to become qualified for future jobs.

Doctors, or health professionals who specialise in providing health-related assistance to patients are some of the most respected individuals in Ghana and the world. It’s the responsibility of doctors to help determine the underlying health issues (s) of individuals and recommend an effective treatment (or remedy to a disease, disorder, or condition). Additionally, nurses are medical professionals who administer doctor-ordered treatments to patients.

Police officers are law enforcement professionals whose job is to protect citizens, check crimes, and ensure that rules and regulations are followed. Similarly, firefighters serve the public by responding to fires and using high-tech equipment to extinguish (quench) these fires, while bringing any individuals who are in danger to safety.

Farmers maintain fields of crops (or vegetable/fruit plants) and/or collections of animals with the intention of selling these products as food.

Chefs/cooks prepare meals in professional settings, including restaurants, cafeterias, and other venues where food and drink are sold to customers. Chefs are generally experienced in cooking and managing kitchens.

Waiters bring menus, beverages, meals, etc., to restaurants and establishments that serve food.

Artists produce art, or work of creative significance, including music, paintings, drawings, poetry, writing and more.

Question From the above, you will realise that no job or profession is useless in our society. All the different categories of jobs or professions are important to human society.

Activity 8.4

1. With two of your colleagues, discuss the key features of the passage above.

2. Based on your experience from the passage, plan and develop the introductory paragraph on the topic, “The importance of education”. Share your write-up with one of your colleagues.

3. Using appropriate transitional expressions, and focusing on paragraph unity, coherence and completeness, compose an essay on what you want to become in future and why you want to become that. Orally present your essay in class.

4. With your knowledge of paragraph development, compose an essay on the topic of your choice, and discuss it with one of your colleagues.