Text Types and Purposes

In our daily interactions with colleagues or friends and other people around us, we share information with them about ourselves, about others, and even about animals and other things in our environment. Some of the conversations we have with them are short, and others are long. All such conversations may be called stories. This is because those discussions happen on particular ideas or issues just like stories. Thus, stories are also told about particular things or issues and could be short or long depending on the message to be conveyed to an audience. We are therefore, in this lesson going to be looking at how to draft short stories.

A story is basically a narrative that usually involves the use of characters to bring out the message that is intended to be communicated to the audience. It is not just told for its sake but for us to learn moral lesson (s) from it. You are therefore encouraged to listen to stories from your parents and also tell your own stories At the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Draft short stories using precise words/phrases to convey a clear picture of experiences.

Key Ideas

• A short story is a brief narrative that is shorter than a novel (long story) and that usually deals with only a few characters. This is usually concerned with a single idea.

• Precise words/phrases refer to the use of exact parts of speech to help produce clear mental pictures of the story in the minds of readers without resorting to the use of many words to convey thoughts.

A short story is a brief narrative that is shorter than a novel and that usually deals with a limited number or very few characters. Characters in this context are the human or animal representations that carry out the actions in the story. Because the story is short, it is often narrated or told around a single idea that is communicated across in only one or a few important scenes (locations). With this, you build your story around only one idea to make it short but straight to the point.

This form of story encourages using a simple setting, concise narrative and generally the omission of complex or difficult story lines. Characters are made known through their actions and performance encounters but are not fully developed. The characters of a story could be human beings, animals, or birds.

Generally, a story has a title, setting, characters, problem, and solution.

Precise words/phrases refer to the use of exact or accurate parts of speech to help bring out clear mental pictures of an issue or idea without necessarily using many words to convey thoughts. The use of precise words/phrases in writing creates strong and appealing images in the minds of readers. These appealing images in the minds of readers would help develop readers’ interest in the story.

These precise words or phrases include but are not limited to got there (arrived), got to see (found out, realised), buy into (support), and so on.

Short stories are a specific type of narrative.

Narratives can be linear or non linear.

A linear narrative is one in which events are chronologically presented with a clear cause and effect relationship between each event. This is properly done by following the sequence of events as they occur or happen. This narrative starts with the issue or event that started the story, followed by the next, in that order to the last event.

For example: A character wakes up, goes to work, meets someone, falls in love, gets married and has children.

On the other hand, non-linear narrative is haphazard. This narrative style does not follow the order in which the events unfold. Non linear narratives make use of flashbacks and flash forwards and fragmented narrative voices.

For a linear narrative, at the beginning, the narrative unfolds to the audience (reader/ listener) what the story is about but would not immediately make known to the audience what the outcome of the story would be until it gets to the climax. This climax (apex/ highest point) is the stage at which the audience gets to know everything that happens.

After the climax comes the resolution, where all the issues or conflicts are resolved.

These do not happen in the Non linear narratives. Non linear narratives explore multiple perspectives and themes, thereby challenging the reader's expectations, and also reflecting human memory experiences. Non-linear narratives can be difficult to follow Fig 4.5 linear narrative Fig 4.6 Non-linear narrative Fig 4.7 Non-linear narrative

Activity 4.4

1. Tell a short story about your life.

2. Gather around one of your colleagues in class as he/she represents your father or mother at home. Listen to a story being narrated or told by the person. After that, also tell your own story. Discuss the moral lesson(s) you have learned when creating the story with your colleagues.

3. Research and draft a brief story about a legend or a popular ancestor in your community.

4. Watch a short story on YouTube on The Dilemma of a Ghost. Discuss the storyline with a friend.

5. Write a one-page story using a linear narrative style, based upon the expression, “It is better late than never”. Do this with three of your colleagues, respecting one another’s views, and orally present your story to the class.

6. Write a story on a topic of your choice using a non-linear narrative style. Post your stories on the wall for a gallery walk.

7. Read a colleagues' work and share your views on what you have read.

As children or even adults, we are often sent by parents and relatives to either deliver messages to individuals or convey information from some other people somewhere.

When we get there or come back, we give out the information on the subject that we were sent. In our bit to delivering the information, we narrate what has been told us by our sender to our audience. In this lesson, therefore, we will be looking at narrative writing, having our focus on the structure and style of the narrative. Narrative is the act of retelling or giving an account of events or experiences to your audience. Narration is an important aspect of our lives. That is, we cannot live a better life without narratives.

It could be done either orally or in writing.

Descriptive writing is a literary technique that aims to create a vivid picture in the reader's mind through detailed sensory observations. This form of writing is used across various genres, including fiction, poetry, and nonfiction, to enhance the reader's experience and immersion in the text.

Key Elements of Descriptive Writing

Sensory Details

Descriptive writing relies heavily on the five senses - sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. By incorporating these sensory details, writers can evoke emotions and create a more immersive experience.

a. Sight: Use vivid adjectives and specific imagery (e.g., "the golden rays of the sun filtered through the emerald leaves").

b. Sound: Incorporate auditory details that can enhance the atmosphere (e.g., "the soft rustle of leaves in the gentle breeze").

c. Smell: Evoke scents that can trigger memories or emotions (e.g., "the sweet aroma of freshly baked bread").

d. Taste: Describe flavours to make the writing more relatable (e.g., "the tangy zest of a lemon burst on my tongue").

e. Touch: Use tactile imagery to convey textures (e.g., "the coarse fabric scratched against my skin").

Figurative Language

Figurative language, such as similes, metaphors, and personification, enriches descriptive writing by adding depth and creativity.

a. Similes: Comparisons using "like" or "as" (e.g., "as brave as a lion").

b. Metaphors: Direct comparisons (e.g., "time is a thief").

c. Personification: Giving human traits to non-human elements (e.g., "the wind whispered through the trees").

Strong Word Choice

Choosing precise and evocative words is crucial in descriptive writing. Strong verbs and specific nouns can convey more than generic ones. Instead of "walked," use "strolled," "marched," or "tiptoed" to convey different meanings or emotions.

Show, Don't Tell

This principle emphasises illustrating experiences through action and sensory details rather than simply stating facts. For example, instead of saying "he was scared," show his fear through his actions: "His hands trembled, and his breath quickened as he stepped into the dark room."

Organisational Structure

Descriptive writing can be organised in various ways:

a. Spatial Order: Describing elements from left to right, top to bottom, or inside to outside.

b. Chronological Order: Detailing events as they occur in time.

c. Order of Importance: Highlighting the most significant details first.

Mood and Tone

The mood refers to the emotional atmosphere of the piece, while the tone reflects the writer's attitude. Both can be established through word choice, imagery, and details.

a. Mood: Is it joyful, melancholic, tense, or serene?

b. Tone: Is it formal, informal, humorous, or serious?

Audience Engagement

Understanding the audience is key to effective descriptive writing. Tailor your language, details, and imagery to resonate with readers, considering their preferences and experiences.

Techniques for Effective Descriptive Writing

₁. Use of Strong Verbs: opt for action-oriented language that enhances the narrative.

2. Vivid Imagery: Paint pictures in the reader's mind with detailed descriptions.

3. Emotional Resonance: Connect with readers on an emotional level through relatable details.

4. Revision and Editing: Refine your writing to enhance clarity and impact, removing unnecessary words or clichés.

Examples of Descriptive Writing

1. Nature Description: "The sun dipped below the horizon, casting a palette of fiery oranges and purples across the sky, while the gentle waves lapped at the shore, whispering secrets of the deep."

2. Character Description: "Her eyes sparkled like emeralds, filled with mischief and curiosity, as her unruly curls danced around her face, framing a smile that could light up the darkest room."

3. Setting Description: "The old library smelled of musty pages and polished wood, its towering shelves standing like sentinels, guarding the countless stories waiting to be discovered."

Descriptive writing is a powerful tool that allows writers to convey experiences, emotions, and imagery in a way that resonates with readers. By focusing on sensory details, employing figurative language, and carefully choosing words, writers can create rich, immersive narratives that capture the essence of their subjects. Whether in fiction or nonfiction, mastering the art of descriptive writing can elevate a piece and leave a lasting impression on the audience.

Using cohesive devices effectively is crucial for creating coherence in descriptive essays. They help link ideas, enhance clarity, and ensure that the reader can easily follow the writer's thoughts. By incorporating a variety of cohesive devices, writers can create more engaging and cohesive narratives that draw readers in and maintain their interest throughout the piece.

Structure of Descriptive Essays

Descriptive essays focus on detailing a person, place, object, or event, appealing to the reader's senses. Like every other type of essay, here’s a typical structure:

Introduction ₐ. Hook: Start with an engaging sentence to capture attention.

b. Background Information: Briefly introduce the subject of your description.

c. Thesis Statement: Present the main idea or purpose of the essay.

Body Paragraphs

ₐ. Paragraph Structure: Each paragraph should focus on a specific aspect of the subject.

i. Topic Sentence: Introduce the main idea of the paragraph.

ii. Sensory Details: Use vivid descriptions that appeal to the five senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch).

Examples and Anecdotes: Include specific examples or personal stories to illustrate your points.

b. Organisation:

i. Spatial Order: Describe things as they appear in space (left to right, top to bottom).

ii. Chronological Order: For events, describe them in the order they occur.

iii. Order of Importance: Start with the most important or striking details.

Conclusion ₐ. Summary: Recap the main points of the essay.

b. Reflection: Share your thoughts or feelings about the subject.

c. Closing Statement: End with a strong statement or call to action that leaves a lasting impression.

This structure helps create a clear, engaging, and immersive experience for the reader.

Types of Descriptive Essays

Descriptive writing can be linear or non-linear depending on what the writer wants to achieve.

Linear Descriptive Writing

This follows a straightforward, chronological order. It presents details in a sequence that makes it easy for the reader to follow along.

Characteristics of Linear Descriptive Writing

1. Clear Structure: Ideas are organised in a logical progression.

a. Time-Based: Events or descriptions unfold in a timeline.

b. Cohesive Flow: Transitions between ideas are smooth and logical.

Example:

Imagine describing a day at the beach:

i. Morning: The sun rose over the horizon, casting golden rays on the sand.

ii. Midday: Families began to arrive, setting up colourful umbrellas and towels.

iii. Afternoon: Children laughed as they splashed in the waves, while others built sandcastles.

iv. Evening: The sky turned shades of pink and orange, signalling the end of a perfect day.

Non-Linear Descriptive Writing

This does not follow a chronological order. It can jump between different times, places, or ideas, often creating a more complex narrative.

Characteristics of Non-Linear Writing

1. Fragmented Structure: Ideas may be presented out of sequence.

2. Thematic or Emotional Focus: Emphasises feelings or themes rather than a timeline.

3. Layered Details: Can explore multiple perspectives or settings simultaneously.

Example:

Using the same beach scene, a non-linear approach might look like this:

i. Memory of Laughter: The sound of children’s laughter echoes, reminiscent of a carefree summer.

ii. Sunset Reflection: A moment of solitude as the sun dips below the horizon, painting the sky with vibrant colours.

iii. Morning Anticipation: The crisp morning air and the smell of saltwater are a prelude to the adventures ahead.

iv. Joyful Chaos: The bustling activity of families enjoying their day, each lost in their world of fun.

Linear writing is straightforward and easy to follow, while non-linear writing offers complexity and depth, inviting the reader to piece together the narrative in a more personal way. Both styles can be effective depending on the purpose and message of the writing.

Activity 6.2

Look around you and describe the things you find in the environment.

NB: Invite three friends and perform this activity with them. Do this in turns. Identify the differences and the similarities in your presentations.

Activity 6.3

Describe a typical Independence Day celebration that you have ever witnessed in Ghana.

(What were some of the activities that took place and what made it memorable?)

Write your responses down.

Activity 6.4

Describe a person who inspires you. (How has the person impacted society and what is it about that person that inspires you the most?)

Activity 6.5

Describe all the people you see in the pictures below.

(Identify the type of dress, the colour of dress, their locations and the activities that they are all engaged in).

Fig 6.1: City picture for description Fig. 6.2: Beach picture for description

Activity 6.6

With three classmates, identify the descriptive words used in the descriptive essay below:

Passage As I step through the gates of my school, the vibrant sounds of laughter and chatter fill the air. The sun casts a warm glow over the lush green fields, where students are busy engaging in various sporting activities. The majestic school buildings, adorned with colourful murals and inspirational quotes, stand tall and proud, exuding an atmosphere of learning and growth. The scent of freshly cut grass wafts through the air, invigorating my senses and preparing me for another exciting day.

As I make my way to my classroom, I'm greeted by the friendly faces of my classmates and teachers. The sound of chalk scratching on the blackboard and the rustling of notebooks creates a symphony of learning. My teachers, with their infectious enthusiasm and wealth of knowledge, guide us through the intricacies of Mathematics, English, and Science. The classroom buzzes with activity as we engage in lively discussions, debates, and problem-solving exercises, fostering a spirit of collaboration and teamwork.

After a fulfilling day of learning, the final bell rings, signalling the start of extracurricular

activities. I join my friends on the football pitch, where we unleash our energy and passion for the beautiful game. As the sun begins to set, casting a golden hue over the school, I reflect on the day's experiences. My school is more than just a place of learning; it's a community that nurtures growth, fosters friendships, and shapes our minds for a brighter future.

Persuasive writing is any written work that tries to convince the reader of the writer’s opinion. A persuasive essay can also draw on personal experience, logical arguments, and an appeal to emotion in a compelling presentation to influence readers. It includes debates and argumentative essays. Because this form of writing aims at convincing the audience, one has to choose carefully the language to use. This should take a precise, powerful and accurate form of words. You could also ask questions to engage readers and smooth the transition to other ideas. This also requires that you speak directly to your audience. To do this effectively, you need to use appropriate cohesive devices (and, before, despite, until, since), and appropriate cohesive expressions (again, furthermore, moreover) to link ideas.

In writing a persuasive essay like a debate, it is important to organise the ideas systematically to develop the structure of the text. This includes the introduction (containing the vocatives, the motion, and declaration of stance and definition of keywords, if any).

The body (in several paragraphs, explaining in detail what you want to communicate - rebutting your opponent’s opinion and bringing forth your own opinion on the subject), and the conclusion (reiterating your stance and calling on your audience to support the side of your argument). To win the support of the audience, you have to select ideas in such a way that they would outweigh those of your opponent’s when presented. Communication plays a pivotal role in persuasive or argumentative writing. It is therefore important that, when we are presenting our opinion or position, we pay attention to our communication skills. Effective communication helps the audience to understand the message being put across so that they are helped to side with us. Based on this, they will be able to make informed decisions as to whether or not to support our argument. We should also be alert enough to counter any ideas that may come from our opponents which we might not have imagined earlier. Preparation of a likely counter argument and its rebuttal are thus vital before the presentation.

Activity 10.2

Read the passage below and carry out the activities that follow.

The subject of homework calls for debate among teachers, students, and parents.

However, it is obvious that homework is not necessary every day. Homework should not be assigned to students on a daily basis because of health issues, the level of difficulty, and the problem of time.

To begin with, daily homework is unnecessary because of health issues. Students who have too much homework can develop poor sleep habits; many students pull “all-nighters” in an attempt to keep up. Another health issue is the lack of fresh air. Studies show that simple exposure to sunlight can provide bodies with necessary vitamins, but there is no sunlight at your desk in your bedroom. Also, stress levels go through the roof when faced with too much work. In countries like Ghana, overworked students have a tendency to commit suicide when things do not go in their favour after their hard work. Evidently, too much homework can seriously damage your health.

In addition, daily homework presents an unrealistic level of difficulty. If all teachers support daily homework, a student will have a heavy workload. Some homework is simply too difficult to be completed alone; a parent is not a teacher and should not be expected to know all the answers. Also, struggling students who face failure at school and at home might choose to give up on school completely.

A student who did not understand all day will feel even more discouraged when left alone to complete the homework. Obviously, daily homework is simply too discriminatory.

Finally, daily homework causes major problems when it comes to time. Many students need to work to supplement their family income or for post-secondary education; there is no time for a student to manage a part-time job and homework.

Valuable time for family and friends also suffers when daily homework is assigned.

Students need connections with the people who care about them in order to be emotionally and mentally healthy. With no time to simply chill out with those we love, we cannot form healthy relationships. Last but not least, students who have homework every day cannot join extra-curricular activities such as sports and clubs. The educational system constantly stresses that a successful student is an active part of the school community, but a student with no free time has no time to join and make new friends. Thus, daily homework seriously compromises a student’s free time.

Owing to problems such as lack of good health, increased level of difficulty and lack of time, daily homework should not be assigned to students. It is, quite simply, unrealistic. Teachers should keep in mind that they are developing future people, and people require a healthy mind, body and spirit.

1. Examine the sample passage above and state its meaning.

2. With critical examination of the passage, discuss with one of your colleagues and write down the meaning of persuasive writing.

3. Using appropriate strategies and features of a debate, write a short essay on a given debate topic relating to your environment and present it orally to the class.

4. You have been admitted into a senior high school to offer a general science course, but your father wants you to read agricultural science. Write a letter to your father, persuading him to allow you to read general science.

PLOT The plot of a work of prose refers to the way and manner in which the events or incidents narrated in the work are arranged. There are two key types of plot structure used in the presentation of a story. The first type of plot structure is called the linear or chronological or organic as opposed to the episodic or inorganic plot. Thus, the plot of a story is the ‘what’ of the story. It is the storyline; the rendering of events from beginning to the end.

A structure can facilitate the ordering of the storyline to achieve some special emotional or historical effect for example. The plot consists essentially of actions and responses to actions. It involves the development of conflict, characters, and setting in the narrative and typically includes:

• Exposition: Introduction to the setting, characters, and situation.

• Inciting incidents: An event that sets the story in motion.

• Rising Action: A series of events that builds tension and conflict.

• Climax: The most intense or critical moment in the story.

• Falling Action: Events that follow the climax and lead to the resolution.

• Resolution: The conclusion of the story, where conflicts are resolved.

• Denouement: The final outcome or result of the story.

Cohesive Devices: These are devices that enable us to effectively shift our attention from one idea to another in our conversations. They help us to link opinions properly in a text or speech to have a unified whole. Many compositions are done with many subheadings within a larger one. For us to be able to connect the various ideas so it will not appear as though the ideas were standing alone, we need to make use of devices. It is important to do so because they help us to link the ideas. These allow us to shift our focus from one point to another. These are essentially used to connect paragraphs in a text. There are many of these devices, which are used for different purposes. While most of the devices are used to link or connect paragraphs in a text, others may be used to join opinions, ideas or two sentences in paragraphs. We may call these linking expressions or words. Some of these are and, but, while, also, and others.

Table 12.1: Some of the devices and their uses Uses Devices Adding Also, As well as Furthermore In addition And Moreover Cause and effect As a result, Because of, Therefore Consequently Owing to Comparison Equally Likewise Just as Similarly Not only but also Contrasting However, Conversely, Unlike, Whereas, Alternatively Emphasising Clearly, Above all, Indeed, Notably, Especially Exceptions Although, But, As long as, Except, However Illustrations For instance, For

example, Such as, Illustrate by, Namely Sequencing First, After, Next, Meanwhile, Subsequently Summary Finally, In brief, Generally, Overall, In short

Activity 12.2

Read the text below and carry out the activity that follows.

In Ghana, many people use charcoal or firewood to cook because these are less expensive and readily available. Random felling of trees has, however, destroyed large portions of forests. The destruction of the beauty of the countryside is perhaps the most obvious sign of deforestation, but it is by no means the most serious problem. The more lasting effect of deforestation is the change in climate.

Usually, the climatic changes are so slow that over short periods only the experts can comment accurately. This year, however, even the layman has noticed that the weather has been hazardous.

In the first place, the harmattan was slow in coming. When it did, it seemed to be reluctant in its visits and hastily went off leaving a thin film of dust in its wake. Then followed the heat; dense and fierce. For three months the sun roasted the earth, wilted the plants and scorched human flesh. The most unbearable season. The rains are here with us, but no one can tell how long they will last.

Early seedlings have died before they gained ground, and later crops may not thrive. As a result, farmers cannot organise their activities to pattern, nor can the government plan its programme of distribution and exportation.

Anticipating these difficulties, the government has embarked on two major programmes. The first is tree planting which was launched a year ago. The second is the drive to encourage people to use gas. Although the campaign is a good thing, it may bring about certain problems. First, gas is quite expensive, and few people can afford it. Second, families have to acquire gas cookers if they change to gas. Third, widespread use of gas will reduce the number of people employed in the charcoal business. Finally, gas, if not handled properly, can cause serious accidents.

1. Identify and discuss with colleagues, the central and the sub-ideas in the text above.

2. Compose an introductory paragraph containing the central idea, the supporting sentences, and the conclusion sentence, using appropriate linking words or expressions, on the topic, ‘the benefits for someone belonging to a religious group in your community’.

3. Plan and compose an essay with your colleagues, using appropriate cohesive devices, on how your favourite food is prepared.

In this section we will be discussing communication. Since we are for the most part born with the ability to make sounds, we always have to communicate with people we live with.

You communicate with your age mates, with people who are older than you, with people with different social standing or younger than you. For this reason, it is important that you are mindful of how you communicate.

In this lesson, we will have our attention on informal letter writing, specifically to a friend (a written communication to a friend). We choose to write letters to friends when we have difficulty speaking to them directly or when the distance does not permit us to have face to face interactions with them.

By the end of this section, you should be able to

• compose an informal letter to a friend.

Key Ideas

• A letter is one of the written communications to an audience (a person or office).

• An informal letter is a letter that is not written in a formal or official way (not written to an office or title/office holder).

LETTERS A letter is a written or printed message, typically sent from one person to another, containing information, thoughts, or feelings. It is a type of communication that can be formal or informal, personal or professional.

Letters can also be:

1. Handwritten or typed

2. Sent through postal mail or email

3. Long or short There are several purposes for which letters are written or sent. A few of them are:

1. Communication with friends and family

2. Business correspondence

3. Official notifications

4. Personal expression and reflection

5. Historical record keeping In this digital age, letters have evolved to include;

• Emails

• Text messages

• Social media messages

• Online forums and discussions However, traditional handwritten letters in many cases still hold sentimental value and are often cherished for their personal touch and emotional significance. Now, let us turn our attention to one of the types of letters.

Informal Letters

An informal letter is a letter that is not written in a formal or official way (not written to an office or title/office holder). Since there are different ways of talking to people, so also there are different ways of writing letters. Informal letters can be semi-formal or friendly.

A semi-formal one is written to relations of the writer who are much older than the writer.

They could be parents, uncles, aunties of the writer, and others. But we will be looking at one that is written to friends. Regarding this, we are going to look at the features and format of an informal letter to a friend.

Features of Informal Letter

Informal letter is written to people who are close to the writer. These people may be friends to the writer - family members, relatives and others. Since this kind of letter is not formal, the language or tone is also informal. This letter does not restrict the writer to a particular topic. It is dependent on the message you want to communicate or convey to your audience. This letter could be written to inform the audience about something, educate, invite, enquire about the well-being of the audience, and others.

It is worth noting that in informal letter writing one can use the contracted form of words such as won’t, can’t, instead of will not and cannot respectively. This letter is chatty in form unlike a formal letter where one is restricted to formal language usage.

1. Format for Informal Letter

The following is the format of an informal letter.

a. Address: This is written in the top corner of either the left-hand side or the right-hand side of the paper. It informs the reader of where the letter is written from or who is writing the letter.

b. Date: It is written under the address. It helps the audience to know when the letter was written.

c. Salutation: It serves as a form of greeting. It is done with - Dear+name of the recipient/audience. E.g. Dear Sallah

d. Introduction: It is where the writer opens the conversation. The writer can say a word of greetings, and also indicate the reason/idea for writing the letter.

e. Main Body: It is in the main body that the writer provides the details of the letter. This could be divided into paragraphs, depending on the number of points or ideas one wants to discuss.

f. Conclusion: This serves as the ending note of the letter. It should be ended in a friendly manner. The writer could summarise all the points discussed in the main body.

g. Subscription: It can be done by saying yours ever, your loving friend, and others. Then the name of the writer follows. E.g. Likpa, Nlankan, Boahemaa, Adzo, and others.

Writer’s Address

Date The writer’s address is written at either the top left-hand corner or the top right-hand corner of the page.

This date will help the receiver know when exactly you wrote the letter Salutation Dear + name, (Dear Kay, Dear Glo, Dear Ofori,) Body- Introduction Start your informal letter with an introduction to set the tone of the matter that is going to be discussed.

Main Body (Could be in paragraphs) Explain the reason behind the letter and provide the details as elaborate as you wish to.

Conclusion End the informal letter on a friendly note.

Subscription Your lovely/loving friend or Yours ever, Nana Akua, Ms Boat.

Activity 15.1

Think about the following personalities carefully and pick out those you can write an informal letter to your headteacher, the chief of your community, your mother, a sister of yours, your classmate, the Chief Executive Officer of your District.

Activity 15.2

Invite three of your colleagues and write out with them an introductory paragraph to a letter you are asked to write to your former schoolmate who is now in a different school, inviting them to your school’s 50ᵗʰanniversary celebration.

Activity 15.3

One of your closest friends has travelled abroad for a very long time. Discuss with a colleague and write out a letter to her/him, telling her/him the developments that have taken place in your community.

1. Explain when a letter is considered informal.

2. What are the items that constitute the format of an informal letter?

3. Plan an informal letter on a topic of your choice.

Extended Reading

• Dadzie, A.B.K and Grant, N. (2008). New Gateway English for Senior High School Book 1 (2nd ed.). Longman Publications

• Sandy, A.J. (2020) English for Senior Secondary Schools Book 1(volume 1).

Independently Published

• Victor, Y. et al; Leonard, A. (2008). Black Star Series Book 1 (volume 1). Cambridge University Press References

• Carter, R., et al; McCarthy, M. (2020). Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press.

• Azar, B. S., et al; Hagen, S. A. (2021). Understanding and Using English Grammar (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

• Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (4th ed.).

Cambridge University Press.

• Wiredu. F. J, (1992). Organised English Structure, with A Self-Study and Practice Book for students of Training colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities:

Academic Publications Accra.

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS

Communication is an integral part of human life or institutions. Thus, before you live effectively, or human institutions run well there is the need for effective interaction or communication with others around you. This could be formal or informal based on the person you are communicating with, how you are supposed to communicate, and the medium through which you communicate. This lesson is going to focus on the formal way of communication, taking into account communication through email, memorandum, agenda, and formal letters. All these have their structural formats we have to follow when we need to deliver a message through them. Generally, all forms of communications have three structural features. These include introduction, body, and conclusion. This means that a formal letter would have different structure from an agenda of a meeting, and others.

We are now going to take a look at them below.

By the end of this section, you will be able to

• Create an email, memo, programme agenda, application (job, services) acceptance letter on given topics using the appropriate format.

Key Ideas

• An email is a means or system for transmitting messages electronically.

• Memo or memorandum is a kind of formal communication or notification that usually operates within an organisation.

• Agenda is a list or outline of things to be considered, discussed or done at a meeting.

• Formal letters, also called business letters or professional letters, are letters that are written in a specific format.

Emails An email is a means or system for transmitting messages electronically. The world, it is often said, is now a global village. This means that you can be in one country and know or see what is happening in another country. One of the media through which we can do this is email. It is simply a medium/channel through which information or messages are sent. It is done electronically - by using information and communication technology (ICT) tools such as smartphones or computers. Before it is possible to do this, the sender as well as the receiver need to have valid email addresses. It is through emails that we can use the ICT tools to transmit the messages. Email is frequently used for formal communications.

How to communicate through email.

1. Click on the email account (Gmail or Yahoo mail)

2. The word “compose” will pop up.

3. Click on compose. This will send you to a new interface where you have:

a) To: This is where you type in the email you are sending the message to.

b) Subject: The subject requires that you give the reason (title) for your message.

After the title, you now have to give the details of the message. This serves as the body of the information you are delivering.

Having done writing the details, there would be a place that indicates “send”. Click on it and it will be sent to the owner of the email account.

In the case of sending a letter of application for a job via email, after you have indicated the email, you are sending to, and stating the subject, you can:

1. Start your email with Dear Mr./Mrs. + the person’s surname.

2. Identify the job you are applying for.

3. Let the recipient know why you are applying for the job.

4. Attach a curriculum vitae (CV) that gives further information about your background and qualification.

5. End your letter by saying I would be much grateful to be given the opportunity/I hope to hear from you soon/I look forward to hearing from you soon.

6. Thank the receiver.

To add an attachment to your email, you must follow the steps below:

a. On the computer or phone, go to Gmail or Yahoo mail.

b. Click compose

c. At the bottom, click attach (or the symbol like a file pin/paperclip)

d. Choose the file you want to upload.

e. Click open

f. Click send NB: The template above will open when you click on compose. The second icon after the Blue Send icon (paperclip) is the one to click on when you are attaching a file.

ACTIVITY 20.1

1. You have been given the opportunity to apply for a vacant position in an organisation via email address. Following the guidelines, practise with a colleague using electronic tools to show how a message can be sent via email.

Memo or Memorandum

This is a kind of formal communication or notification that usually operates within an organisation. Because it is a formal communication, it requires a title or heading. It is mostly used for the day-to-day running of an organisation. This could be written from the top to the bottom of the organisational structure or vice versa. A memorandum is different from a formal letter in its features, where it is circulated, and even its formality. While a memo is a communication within an organisation/institution/agency or a firm, a formal letter can be sent to someone outside the jurisdiction of the writer. In some cases, a memorandum may be less formal as compared to a formal letter. The reason for writing a memo could be to instruct (in the case of it being written from top to the bottom), to inform the workforce of something, to educate, to warn, and others. Since a memo is written for different purposes, the approach may slightly be different. Writing a memo to warn may be different from writing to request something from an office.

The following are the tips to consider when writing a memo:

1. The heading (this is applicable when the company/organisation does not have a letterhead for memos).

2. A brief introduction

3. Background information on the issue under discussion

4. Outline actions you want to be carried out and timelines to carry out the actions

5. Conclusion/closing statement

6. Before you send, you have to review and proofread your text to ensure all is accurate.

Memo headings - format can vary. Some formats bold the headings (to, from…), some do not capitalise the subject line, some align the headings based on the colon.

This is a sketched structure of a memorandum.

MEMORANDUM To: (the receiver) From: (the sender/writer) Date: (when it is written) Subject: (the reason/subject of the memo) Body (introduction, main body, conclusion) The above would be appropriate if the company does not have the letterhead for memos. But if it does, the “memorandum” on top would not be necessary.

2.1 Invite four of your friends and perform this activity with them. Discuss and write a memorandum requesting that textbooks be distributed to your class members.

2.2 Orally present your write-up in class for others to critique.

Agenda _(This) is a list or outline of things to be considered, discussed or done at a meeting.

A meeting agenda takes place in our everyday life either formally or informally.

Thus, we sit for meetings with our parents and other siblings in our homes. Those meetings do not happen accidentally. When we meet, there are issues or items we put together to discuss at the meeting. In other words, the agenda is a structured roadmap for a meeting, detailing the topics and activities planned to discuss in the meeting. These items we put together to discuss are called the agenda. It is also known as a programme of activities for a meeting. It communicates the purpose of the meeting and also tells the participants what to expect during the meeting and how they can prepare for it. Also, it helps participants to know who is tasked to do what at the meeting, and what amount of time they have to carry out their tasks assigned to them. A well-prepared agenda for a meeting maximises the effectiveness of the meeting and keeps members on track. Because they know the purpose of the meeting, items/issues to consider at the meeting, the task assigned to each member, and the amount of time allotted for each agenda item, members would have a better direction as to what is expected of them. It means that members have to be served with the agenda before the meeting day. This would help them deliver effectively at the meeting.

The following are items to consider when preparing a meeting agenda.

1. Objective of the meeting (what the meeting seeks to achieve)

2. Date (when the meeting is taking place)

3. Time to start the meeting

4. Meeting type (indicate the type of meeting)

5. Venue of the meeting

6. Call-in number (indicate the number)

7. Called-in by (caller’s name)

8. Call-in code (indicate the code)

9. Timekeeper

10. Attendees (write the names of those present)

11. Apologies (write names of those who were not available to attend)

12. Facilitator (name the person to facilitate the meeting)

13. Note taker (assign someone to take notes/minutes)

14. Date of next meeting if any.

1. Indicate what documents to refer to.

2. Indicate what items/information members are to bring to the meeting.

1. Identify action items that were resolved to be carried out.

2. Name the person who was tasked to carry out the actions.

3. Indicate the time by which the actions were to be carried out.

1. List the items to be discussed.

2. Assign participants to present on those items.

3. Allot time for the presentation of each item.

1. List items that require actions to be carried out

2. Name participants who are to take actions on the items.

3. Indicate the date by which the tasks have to be accomplished.

If there are other notes or information then it can be brought up.

ACTIVITY 20.2

1. Perform this activity alone.

Assume the position of a secretary to your school’s students’ representative council (SRC) board, and draw up an agenda with your other executives, for your quarterly SRC meeting.

2. Share the agenda with the entire class for feedback.

Formal letters Formal letters, also called business letters or professional letters, are letters that are written in a specific format. Formal letters are much more formal in style than informal/friendly letters. These are addressed/written to office holders. Formal letters could be written to provide official information, apply for an employment, express a concern, and others. These types of letters include but are not limited to application letters, business letters, letters to editors.

Features of Formal letter

1. Sender’s address

2. Date

3. Recipient’s address

4. Salutation

5. Heading/Title

6. Body (Introduction, Main Body and Conclusion)

7. Subscription - the closing and signing of the letter Layout of formal letter writing Sender’s/writer’s address Date Recipient’s address Salutation (Dear Sir/Dear Madam) Heading/Title Body (introduction, main body, and conclusion) Subscription:

Yours faithfully/Yours sincerely Signature Full name of writer These types of letters are extensively discussed in year two.

1. Examine the key difference of each of the following from the rest.

a. Memo

b. Email

c. Agenda

d. Formal letter

2. How do you prepare an agenda for a class meeting?

3. As part of the structure, what are the items to consider when you are writing an application for a job?

Extended Reading

1. Dadzie, A.B.K and Grant, N. (2008). New Gateway English for Senior High School Book 1 (2nd ed.). Longman Publications

2. Sandy, A.J. (2020) English for Senior Secondary Schools Book 1(volume 1). Independently Published

3. Victor, Y. et al; Leonard, A. (2008). Black Star Series Book 1 (volume 1). Cambridge University Press

4. Old newspapers

5. Any English Language Textbooks approved by NaCCA

6. Sample texts from social media Glossary Curriculum vitae or CV A comprehensive/detailed statement of one’s educational background, teaching, and other experiences of the person. It is current practice to list previous positions and experience from the most recent onwards.

Via Through

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS

In our previous lesson on Text types and purposes, we learned how to compose various texts such as an email, memos, formal letters-application and acceptance letter. We learned that an email is a means or system for transmitting messages electronically. Again, we learned that a memo or memorandum is a kind of formal communication or notification that usually operates within an organisation. Memos are mostly used for the day-to-day running of an organisation. Features or how to write a memo was also learned. We said that memos differ from formal letters basically in its features, range of circulation and also level of formality. In addition to that, we learned or read about an Agenda. It was stated that an Agenda is a list or outline of things to be considered or done at a meeting. Today, we will focus on article writing, taking into consideration local/national newspapers, school/ international magazines journals.

By the end of this section, you should be able to

• Write articles on given issues which could be used for publication in national newspapers and magazines.

Key Ideas

• An article is a piece of writing meant for publication.

• Publication: A publication is the process of producing and distributing written or printed material, such as books, articles, or reports, for the public to read. It can also refer to the actual work that is published.

• Journal: A journal is a collection of published articles or writings on a specific topic or field of study. It can also refer to a personal diary where someone records his or her thoughts or experiences.

An article is a piece of writing meant for publication. Articles are published in local/ national newspapers, school/international magazines journals. Articles are written to educate, inform, entertain, and more. They are mostly based on facts. Articles may be written to be published in school magazines, local newspapers or national newspapers.

Features of Article Writing

₁. Title/ Heading: This is taken out of the question, boldly written and neatly underlined. For example, The Menace of Social Media.

2. Introduction: This gives an insight into the topic to be discussed in the article with factual evidence.

3. Main Body: This is a detailed discussion of the topic. Ideas must be orderly presented in paragraphs and well-linked with appropriate linking expressions.

Relevant illustrations, short stories, that bring home the discussion and factual add-ups may be put here.

4. Conclusion: The conclusion should leave a lasting impression on the reader’s mind about the topic being discussed.

5. Subscription: This is written in the bottom right corner at the end of the article. It is the writer’s full name, address/designation.

For example:

Kyei-Baffour Jennifer,

Assembly Member,

Asokore Mampong.

Types of Article Writing

Article writing comes in four forms. These four forms of article writing are expository, descriptive, narrative and persuasive articles.

1. Expository Article Writing:

The first type is expository article writing. This type clearly explains a topic, concepts or ideas in a clear and precise manner. It is used to inform the public about the questions raised by providing them with information about it. The sole purpose of this type of article is to explain the complex part of the information in a simpler form. ‘How To’ guide articles or encyclopaedias, are examples of expository articles.

2. Descriptive Article Writing:

Descriptive article writing is used to explain and describe a particular topic, event, or information. This type of article writing needs the writer to explain it in detail. The purpose of the article should be to provide a clear and accurate picture of the event to the readers. Event descriptions, product reviews are examples of descriptive paragraphs.

3. Narrative Article Writing:

This type of article writing is the third one. This type is used to narrate an incident or event, topic, or information. In this article writing the style of writing words needs to be creative and engaging. The main purpose of this writing is to draw attention to the article and website of the brand and provide an entertaining experience to the reader. Narrative writing examples include the biography of famous people, historical events, sometimes the recounting of fictional stories and more.

4. Persuasive Article Writing:

Persuasive article writing includes the writing style that is used to persuade the reader to side with or to object strongly to any topic, information, or event.

Persuasive writing techniques demand the presentation of the article in a convincing manner. This type of work also includes evidence and facts along with the topic, in order to provide an argumentative pitch to readers.

Examples of persuasive articles are sales pitch, and call to action.

School Magazines

A school magazine is a publication created by students and faculty generally in combination, typically released on a periodic basis (monthly, quarterly, or annually) within a school. It entails a variety of content that reflects the activities, interests, and achievements of the school community.

Examples of content for a school magazine are:

Student Articles: Essays, opinion pieces, and creative writing. Some of the content of an article written for publication in a school magazine are as follow:

1. School News: Updates on events, achievements, and initiatives within the school.

2. Creative Works: Poems, short stories, drawings, and photographs by students.

3. Interviews: With staff, alumni, or notable figures.

4. Sports and Activities: Reports on sports events, clubs, and extracurricular activities.

5. Editorial Content: This is usually managed by an editorial team, which includes both students and teachers.

The school magazine also serves as a platform or avenue for students to express their creativity and share their experiences, while also documenting school life for the wider community. It can also serve as a historical record.

Journals Journals are publications that contain articles, research findings, or essays focused on specific subjects or fields of study. Journals vary in type and purpose, but are often put into two main types:

1. Academic or Scholarly Journals: These are peer–reviewed publications that contain original research, review articles, case studies, or theoretical discussions written by experts, researchers, or scholars. They are common in fields like science, medicine, law and the humanities. Academic journals aim to advance knowledge in a specific area.

For example: The Lancet Journal of Medical Research.

2. There are journals that are written by individuals, often in a private format like a diary, where they record personal thoughts, experiences, and reflections. They are known as Personal Journals. They serve as a tool for self-expression, self- examination and documentation of daily life.

3. Professional Journals focus on industry–specific topics for practitioners in fields like business, education, and healthcare. These Journals are often published regularly (monthly, quarterly, or annually) and can be printed or available digitally.

National Newspapers

When we mention National newspapers, we mean to say that they are publications that cover news and events important to an entire country. They focus on a broad range of topics such as politics, economy, culture, sports, and entertainment. National newspapers often have wide distribution within the country and may provide coverage of both domestic and international affairs.

1. The Daily Graphic (Ghana)

2. The New York Times (USA)

3. The Times of India (India)

4. The Times (UK) The Independent (UK) The Daily Telegraph (UK) The Guardian (UK) Features of a National Newspaper

1. Wide Geographic Coverage: This covers news and events from every part of the country and sometimes international news, appealing to a broad audience across the nation.

2. Comprehensive News Section is another feature of a National Newspaper which usually has multiple sections, such as politics, economy, business, sports, entertainment, technology, health, and international news.

3. Prominent Editorial Section: They present editorial pieces, opinion articles and commentaries from expert columnists, offering analysis and perspectives on current affairs.

4. In-depth Reporting and Investigative Journalism: These newspapers often have a team of journalists who produce in-depth reports and investigative articles on significant national or international issues.

5. High Production Quality: In most cases National newspapers often have a large staff of professional writers, editors, and photographers, leading to well – researched and polished articles with quality images and infographics.

6. Daily Circulation: the majority of newspapers are published daily, although some may also have weekend editions with more features, special reports, or magazines.

7. Online Presence: Most national newspapers have a robust online platform, offering real-time news updates, videos, and multimedia content, often with subscription models or paywalls.

8. Advertisements and Classifieds: National papers feature prominent advertisements, including classified advertisements for jobs, real estate, and services, which help generate revenue.

9. Supplementary Sections: They often include special sections, such as lifestyle, culture, travel, education, sport, and sometimes games or puzzles.

How to Write a National Newspaper

You need the guidelines below to write successfully to a National Newspaper

1. You have to understand the audience, your writing should appeal to various population statistics or census data in terms of geography, age, and interests.

Avoid overly localised references and ensure clarity for readers from different parts of the country.

2. Choose a Relevant Topic: Choose a topic that is of national importance, whether it is related to politics, economics, social issues, sports, or culture. Make sure that it’s timely and newsworthy. Look for angles that could have a broader impact or significance beyond one region.

3. National Newspapers demand accuracy and depth. Do thorough research on your topic using credible or accurate sources. Include data, quotations from experts, and statistics where appropriate to provide credibility and to support your arguments.

Ensure you present a balanced view, especially on controversial topics.

4. Write a strong lead. Ensure your lead sentence or opening sentence should be catchy and succinct. It should immediately convey the importance of the story and encourage the reader to continue. In the case of new stories, start with the most important information (who, what, where, when, why, and how).

5. Use a Neutral and Professional Tone

6. Provide Quotes and Sources

7. Structure the Article

8. Focus on Clarity and Simplicity

9. Edit and Revise: Proofread your work for grammar, punctuation, and factual accuracy. Revisit your piece for flow, clarity and structure. Ensure your article is well–polished before submission.

10. Keep your piece brief and to the point. Cut out unnecessary information while retaining the core message.

11. Ensure you submit your article to the appropriate section of the newspaper - news, opinions, sports. Familiarise yourself with the style and focus of each section to ensure your article fits.

12. Follow Submission Guidelines. Always follow submission guidelines, including format, word count, and deadlines. Some newspapers accept uninvited submissions, particularly for opinion pieces, while others may require prior approval or pitches.

You are assured of a suitable article for a national newspaper by engaging a broad audience while maintaining accuracy and journalistic standards.

International Newspapers

Also known as Global newspapers are those that are published with the intention of reaching a global audience, often with editions or content tailored to multiple countries.

They cover worldwide news, issues, and events and are often seen as authoritative sources of information on global matters. International newspapers often maintain correspondents or bureaus in multiple countries.

a. The Wall Street Journal (USA, international editions)

b. The Financial Times (UK, global readership)

c. Le Monde (France International audience) NB: National newspapers are basically focused on domestic issues with some international news while international newspapers aim at global events and trends, often influencing international policy and business decisions.

Features of an International Newspaper

1. Global Coverage

2. International Correspondents: They typically have correspondents stationed around the world, offering firsthand accounts of events in different countries.

This helps provide in-depth, on the ground reporting from various regions.

3. Coverage of International Politics and Relations: This involves the coverage of international diplomacy, global organisations e.g. the UN, WTO, IMF), and relations between countries is central. Issues like treaties, alliances, sanctions, and trade agreements often feature prominently,

4. Business and Economic News

5. Audience Diversity: They cater to an international audience, which may include expatriates, business people, diplomats and travellers. This means articles are often written in a more neutral, globally comprehensible tone, avoiding overly localised slang or references.

6. Multimedia Platforms: International newspapers often have a strong digital presence, with websites, apps, and social media platforms offering multimedia content, including videos, podcasts, and interactive features. This caters to global readers who access news from different time zones

7. In- depth Investigations and Features

8. Global Opinions and Commentary: They often feature opinion pieces and editorial from global leaders, experts, and commentators. These pieces offer analysis on major international issues from different perspectives, reflecting a wide range of views.

9. Coverage of Global Culture and Trends: These newspapers explore international arts, culture, technology, and lifestyle trends. They report on global events such as international film festivals, art exhibitions, and technological advancements.

10. Focus on Travel and International living. International newspapers feature sections on international travel, expatriate life, global real estate and living abroad.

How To Write For Publication In An International Paper

1. Know your Global Audience

2. Select a Global or Cross-Border Topic

3. Current Events: Pay attention to international trends, crises, or

4. events that are making headlines globally and resonate with readers from multiple regions.

5. Use a clear and National Tone. Try to avoid the use of biassed language, especially when reporting on international issues or conflicts or sensitive political issues.

Maintain an impartial professional tone.

6. Craft a strong, Global Lead

7. Structure Your Article for Global Readership

8. Include Multiple Voices and Perspectives.

9. Clarity Context and Background

10. Edit for Clarity and Precision

ACTIVITY 24.1

1. Examine the sample of an article below and identify the features “Should School Uniforms Be Mandatory?”

As students, we’ve all had our fair share of debates about school uniforms.

Some of us love the idea of wearing the same attire every day, while others despise the thought of losing our personal style. But is it really that simple?

In my opinion, school uniforms should be mandatory, and here’s why.

School uniforms eliminate the pressure to wear trendy or expensive clothing, creating a more equal environment for students from different socio-economic backgrounds. When everyone looks the same, no one stands out for wearing hand-me-downs or thrift store finds.

Uniforms minimise distractions caused by revealing or provocative clothing, allowing us to focus on our studies instead of our peers’ outfits. This helps maintain a professional and respectful atmosphere in the classroom.

Wearing uniforms teaches us discipline and responsibility, essential life skills that extend beyond the classroom. By adhering to a dress code, we learn to follow rules and respect authority.

Some argue that uniforms restrict our self-expression and creativity.

However, I believe there are other ways to express ourselves, such as through extracurricular activities, art, or writing.

In conclusion, mandatory school uniforms promote equality, reduce distractions, and encourage discipline. While some may argue it restricts self-expression, I believe the benefits outweigh the drawbacks. So, let’s embrace our school uniforms and focus on what really matters – our education.

2. Call a friend and compose the introduction paragraph of an article for publication,

3. With the help of your classmates, compose a suitable article for publication in your school magazine using the features of how to write an article.

4. Identify an issue in your school and write an article on it and present it to the class.

1. Write down the features of an article.

2. Compose the introduction paragraph of an article for publication in your school magazine on ‘The reasons why some students indulge in examination malpractice’.

3. Write an article suitable for publication in any of the local newspapers on ‘The Effects of Indiscipline on Academic Performance’.

4. Identify one pressing issue in your community and write a suitable article for publication in any national / international newspapers on the issue to be presented first of all in class.

References:

• Murphy, R. (2019). English Grammar in Use (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Carter, R., & McCarthy, M. (2020). Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press.

• Azar, B. S., & Hagen, S. A. (2021). Understanding and Using English Grammar (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

• Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Wiredu. F. J, (1992). Organised English Structure, with A Self-Study and Practice Book for students of Training colleges, the Polytechnics and the Universities: Academic Publications Accra.

Acknowledgements List of Contributors

Name Institution

Beatrice Antwiwaa Boateng Oti Boateng SHS, Koforidua

Jennifer Afua Kyei-Baffour Sakafia Islamic SHS, Kumasi

Isabella Sika Keh Achimota School

N-yalamba Jerry Njomoun Tatale E.P. Agric SHS