English Speech Sounds

Welcome to Year 2, Section 1! Here, we will be embarking on an exciting journey through the world of language. These lessons will enhance your listening and speaking skills, reading comprehension and grammar understanding - all while having fun. In our oral language lesson, we will explore the fascinating world where two vowel sounds are put side by side in a word. This is called a diphthong. There are fun activities that will help you to learn to identify and to produce these sounds so you do not have to worry. During the reading lesson, you will be given a guide on reading and answering comprehension questions. Understanding how to read effectively and also how to respond to questions is essential for your growth and security as a reader. Finally, our grammar lesson will look at the concepts of phrases and clauses. Remember, practice makes perfect and every step you take helps you become a better learner. Let us get started!

Key Ideas

• Clause is a group of words with a subject and a predicate and may or may not form a complete thought.

• Diphthongs: A sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and moves towards another (as in coin, loud, and smear).

• Glides are speech sounds that are phonetically similar to vowels but function as consonants in a syllable.

• Phrase is a word or group of words without a subject and a predicate.

• Predicate is the part of the sentence that says something about the subject.

• Reading comprehension is the ability to make sense of a text read in order to be able to tell the meaning of the text.

• Subject is the part of the sentence about which something is said.

Diphthongs are special vowel sounds that begin with one vowel sound and smoothly glide (change) into another. They occur within the same syllable. In one syllable, you can have two different vowel sounds that occur side by side. For example, in the word ‘cow’ /kau/, two different vowel sounds /a/ and /ʋ/ are put side by side. This makes the ‘ow’ in the word ‘cow’ a diphthong—Diphthongs aid in differentiating words from one another.

Diphthongs are also important because they contribute to the richness of language.

There are eight diphthongs in English Language. They are: (/aɪ/, /aʋ/ /eɪ/, /ɔɪ/, /ǝʋ/, /eǝ/, /ɪǝ/ and /ʋǝ/). Table 1.1: A table on English Diphthongs with examples Diphthong Examples /aɪ/ my, pie, lie, sigh, fright, flight /aʋ/ how, bow, fowl, hound /eɪ/ say, spray, slay, make, raise, eight /ɔɪ/ coy, coil, choice, ploy, soil /ǝʋ/ goal, so, coat, own, cold /eǝ/ lair, bear, heir, mare, blur /ɪǝ/ hear, sheer, mere, shea, spear /ʋǝ/ cure, lure, poor, dour, your

Note: Review the pure vowel chart in your Year One English Language Learner Material Section One for more on the positioning of the pure vowel sounds (monophthongs) Classification of Diphthongs

Figure 1.1: Classification and types of diphthongs used in words.

Diphthongs start on one vowel sound quality and end on the other vowel sound quality.

Therefore, it is because of the positioning of the tongue that a diphthong can start on the opening and end on the closing or on the centring. This explains why we have Closing and Centring Diphthongs

1. With the closing diphthong, the first vowel is open and the second is closed. The closing diphthongs that we have in English are: /aɪ/, /aʋ//eɪ/, /ɔɪ/ and/ǝʋ/.

2. In the centring diphthong, the first vowel sound is more peripheral while the second is central. They are: /eǝ/, /ɪǝ/ and /ʋǝ/.

Refer to Table 1.1 for examples of closing and centring diphthongs.

To conclude, diphthongs are important components of speech that permeate the phonetic landscape of a language. Their unique characteristics allow for a variety of sounds that can change meaning and contribute to the richness of spoken language.

Activity 1.1 Practising of vowel sounds

1. Which vowel sounds can be put together to form diphthongs in specific words. Write your responses in the table below. The vowel chart can guide you.

Diphthong Sounds Examples in words (underline the diphthongs in the words)

2. Now use a dictionary to confirm your responses (both the sounds and examples); make corrections where necessary.

3. On a sheet of paper, write what you think a diphthong is and share with your friends.

4. Get a simple extract or passage from a text and based on your knowledge of diphthongs, read the text. Remember to pronounce the diphthong sounds correctly. When in doubt, use a dictionary.

An example of an extract from The Kaya Giel by Mamle Wolo is given below:

This section will explore three interconnected areas of language that play a crucial role in enhancing our communication skills: triphthongs in connected speech, reading comprehension at various levels, and the application of noun clauses in sentences. First, we will explore the fascinating world of triphthongs, which are complex vowel sounds formed by the combination of three different vowel sounds in a single syllable. We will discuss how these sounds function in connected speech, practise their articulation and use them in forming meaningful sentences. This will help us sound more natural and fluid in our everyday conversations. We will learn to engage with texts at the literal, inferential, and critical levels, allowing us to evaluate various texts effectively. This skill is vital for developing critical thinking and a deeper appreciation of literature.

Finally, we will explore the use of noun clauses in our grammar lesson. We will look at how to identify, construct and apply noun clauses to enhance our speaking and writing.

This will enhance our expressions and make them more precise and informative. By the end of this section, you will have a greater understanding of these basic language concepts and how they contribute to effective communication.

Key Ideas

• Triphthongs are a combination of three vowel sounds produced in a single syllable. The first vowel gradually changes into the second and then the third.

• Reading comprehension questions are the questions that are used to examine or determine a reader’s understanding of a text/passage.

• Subordinate clause is a type of clause that has subject and predicate but depends on the main or principal clause to make complete meaning.

In our previous section we read about diphthongs. We learned that diphthongs are complex vowel sounds that begin with one vowel sound and glide into another within the same syllable. Diphthongs can be classified into two main categories which are Closing Diphthongs and Centring Diphthongs. We will now look at triphthongs.

Triphthong A Triphthong is a vowel sound that combines three vowel sounds in one syllable. In producing or articulating a triphthong, the first sound gradually changes into the sound of the second and then the third or final sound. They usually occur when the tongue glides from one vowel position to another and then to the third, all within one syllable.

There are five triphthongs in English language. The table below shows an illustration of the triphthongs in English language and examples under each of them. Study the

table carefully and learn how to articulate the triphthongs correctly. You may ask your teacher to guide you.

Figure 3.1: An image of Triphthongs Now, measure your level of progress in triphthongs by performing Activity 3.1.

Activity 3.1 Assessing Sound Combinations of Triphthongs

Write the words below by their corresponding triphthongs.

tire, buyer, mayor, tower, tyre, widower, foyer, liar, flour.

1. /aɪǝ/ -

2. /eɪǝ/ -

3. /aʋǝ/ -

4. /ǝʋǝ/ -

5. /ɔɪǝ/ - Great job! I hope you enjoyed the activity? Get ready to learn how to articulate the triphthongs correctly.

Articulating Triphthongs

Articulation refers to the formation of speech sounds by the use of vocal organs at a particular place. Normally, it involves the use of the tongue, teeth or parts of the mouth.

The QR code/link below will help you practise how to articulate the five triphthongs in English language correctly. Scan the code or click the link below and listen carefully to practise on your own.

https://youtu.be/rWTXHhrs7aI?t=31 Wonderful! Share your experience on the video with your friends by role-playing the articulation of the five triphthongs in English language.

Activity 3.2 Articulation of Triphthongs

Articulate the following words correctly and use each of them to form meaningful sentences. You can perform this activity with your friend or classmate where necessary.

flyer, flower, fire, betrayal, royal Well done. Keep it up! Let us make our lesson fun by creating some simple poems with end rhymes using words that contain triphthongs. Work together with your friend or classmate. Read the poem below carefully to study the rhyme pattern.

Enjoy this moment!

She sparks up her inner-self like fire And work all day like a mower Glued to the heat but withered not like a flower She wages wars to every opportunity in life with power Yet, never swim with the tongue of a liar For every tick on her clock sinks into an hour An hour required to be a royal.

Good! I hope you can identify the triphthongs used in the poem and you articulate them well? Now, challenge yourself by creating your own poem using words containing triphthongs.

Activity 3.3 Creating short poems that rhyme with words containing triphthongs Create a poem that rhymes with words containing triphthongs at the end of every line.

You have done well so far. Share your poem with your classmates.

You have done well! I hope you can now identify and use triphthongs correctly in communication. Continue to learn more about triphthongs using your computer laboratory or mobile phones. The QR code or link below will direct you to a YouTube video which will increase your understanding. Scan or click on it and learn more.

https://Youtu.be/T5_7ToNeGbM?t=290

This section will cover the world of consonant sounds, specifically, affricates and approximants and how they are produced. As usual, there are examples to guide you so all you need to do is practise. We will also look at grammatical structures and the role they play in understanding and interpreting passages. Grammatical structures refer to the way words are put together to form phrases, clauses and sentences that are meaningful. This will help us articulate our thoughts more precisely in both spoken and written forms.

In addition to our grammatical structures, we will look at subordinate clauses, some types and their usage. Even though subordinate clauses cannot stand alone in sentences, their importance cannot be downplayed. They usually add more information about the noun. This helps us to make deductions and get the meaning we want. By the end of this section, we should have enhanced our language skills and have a greater understanding of these fundamental language concepts and how they contribute to effective communication.

Key Ideas

• Affricates: These are consonant sounds that begin as stops (complete closure in the vocal tract) and release as fricatives (partial closure causing turbulent airflow).

• Approximants: They are consonant sounds where the articulators (like the tongue and lips) come close together but do not create turbulent airflow.

• Grammatical structures: This refers to how words come together to form phrases, clauses and sentences which make meaning.

• Relative clause: A type of dependent clause which gives additional information about a noun in the main clause.

• Restrictive relative clause: They provide additional information which is also essential.

Identification and Use of Affricates in Connected

Speech We have studied monophthongs, diphthongs and triphthongs already. Their definitions, classification and how they are produced were learned. Today, our lesson is on Affricates and Approximants. When we say Affricates, they are complex speech sounds that begin as stops (complete closure of the vocal tract) and release as fricatives (partial closure that causes turbulence). Affricates are often represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) with a combination of a stop and a fricative symbol like /t∫/ or /dჳ/.

In English, the common affricates are (/t∫/) as in ‘chop’ and /dჳ/ as in ‘judge’. Many languages, including German and Polish, also use affricates. For example, the Polish / tʒ/ and /dჳ/ are similar to the English affricates.

Figure 5.1: Voiced and voiceless fricative sounds The Affricate /t∫/ can be found at the beginning (initial), in the middle (medial) and at the end of a word (final). Examples include; chop (initial), furniture (medial) and attach(final).

Table 5.1: Examples of affricates Initial Medial Final Chair Matches Clutch Chip Stiches Slouch Charm Trenches Couch The affricate /dჳ/ also occurs in words like just, fridge, journey, gist, rage, adage, aged, adjourn, fidget, joy, urge, and many others. In spelling or writing, /dჳ/ can take the form ‘dg’ as in dodge, judge, wedge, badge and bridge. /dჳ/ can also take the form ‘dj’ and appear in words like adjacent, adjudicate, adjourn, /dჳ/ can equally take the form ‘gg’ as in words like suggest and exaggerate. /dჳ/ also takes the form ‘di’ in soldier Approximants Approximants are consonant sounds produced with a relatively open vocal tract, so that the airflow is not turbulent, unlike fricatives. They can be thought of as ‘close’ to vowels but are classified as consonants.

Figure 5.2: Approximant sounds Common approximants in English include /r/, /l/, /j/ (as in ‘yes’) and /w/. Approximants often serve as semi-vowels because of their vowel-like quality. In other languages like Spanish, the ‘/j/ sound as in ‘you’ is an approximant, similar to the English ‘y’.

Also, in some dialects of Arabic, there are approximants that play a significant role in distinguishing meaning. The differences between affricates and approximants are essential in many languages. Their significance in speech contributes to the richness of the variety of sounds around the world.

Activity 5.1 Articulation of Affricates and Approximant Sounds

1. In groups of four, open YouTube on your browser and watch any recorded videos on Affricates and Approximants and imitate them. As you watch the video, write down as many words that contain approximants or affricates as possible.

2. In your group, take turns to articulate the approximants and affricates you heard from the video.

3. With your friends create dialogues, short stories and rhymes with words containing affricates and approximants.

4. Now pair with a member of your group and read the following passage. Do well to articulate the affricates and approximants appropriately.

A Jungle Walk

The journey through the jungle was absolutely thrilling. The air was thick and with the sounds of wildlife, creatures chirping in the distance, and rustling through the underbrush it felt amazing. Adjoa and Kojo, always the curious travellers, were excited to explore every nook and cranny of the Ayeduase jungle. With the thick green canopy above serving as shade and the distant hum of flowing water which echoed around them, they felt like residing there for good. Adjoa’s most loyal companion, Kojo was so eager. He was right beside her to ensure that she was safe and relaxed. Kojo cracked occasional jokes and gave playful remarks as they walked. They both laughed as they stumbled over roots and rocks, constantly marvelling at the jungle’s absolute beauty, especially its floral adornment.

The further they went, the more the place seemed to come alive and look more fascinating. Adjoa pointed to a bright yellow butterfly flitting by, while Kojo tried to catch a glimpse of a jaguar, though it vanished too quickly into the dense brush.

It wasn’t long before they came across a sparkling waterfall, alas, the sight they have been desperate to witness. It was lovely, breathtaking and wonderful. The sound of the water rushing down the rocks filled the air and the mist created a rainbow in the sunlight. “This place is incredible,” Kojo said, his eyes wide with excitement. “I know, right?” Adjoa grinned as voice filled with wonder. “I bet there’s even more hidden around here.” They continued onward, eager to see what other surprises the jungle had in store.

As the day wore on and the sun began to fall behind the horizon. The jungle's atmosphere shifted. The evening sounds of chirping insects filled the air and the first fireflies began to flicker in the growing twilight. Kojo chuckled and nudged Adjoa, “This place feels magical, doesn’t it? I’m so glad we decided to do this.”

Adjoa smiled back; her heart full of excitement. “Me too. This is exactly what I was hoping for”. And so, with the jungle fading into an eerie calm, they pressed on, eager to see where the next chapter of their adventure would take them.

You have arrived at another intriguing part! Here, we will engage in three lessons designed to enhance your language skills. The first lesson will focus on identifying patterns of consonant clusters occurring at the beginning and end of syllables in connected speech. This will help improve your pronunciation and fluency as you communicate. The second lesson will be on a variety of level-appropriate texts that not only challenge your comprehension skills but also provide enjoyment. You will analyse different genres and styles, fostering a deeper appreciation for literature. Lastly, in our grammar lesson, we will concentrate on adverbial clauses, learning how to incorporate them effectively into sentences for clearer communication. Mastering these structures will enhance your writing and speaking abilities. Let us kick off!

Key Ideas

• A Syllable-Final Consonant Cluster occurs at the end of a syllable or a word.

• A Syllable–Initial Consonant Cluster occurs at the beginning of a syllable or word.

• A Syllable-Medial Consonant cluster occurs in the middle of a syllable or word.

• An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that modifies an adverb and adjective or a verb.

• Consonant Cluster refers to a group of two or more consonants that appear together in a word without any intervening vowel.

• Reading for pleasure is a form of reading that is not focused on identifying specific details or information in the text but for personal enjoyment/leisure.

Figure 7.1: An image showing some consonant clusters Consonant Clusters Many English words are made up of a succession of two or more consonant without any vowel between them. This succession or sequence is known as consonant clusters.

Consonant clusters refer to group of two or more consonant sounds that occur together in a word or syllable. They are sequence of consonants that function as a single phonological unit within a syllable. Certain consonant clusters can prove to be challenging at the outset. You should learn to produce consonant clusters without inserting any vowel between the consonants or interchanging the position or dropping any of the consonants if you want to be understood by your listeners.

Consonant clusters can be classified into initial or final. The maximum number of consonants that can occur at the beginning of an English syllable is three while the maximum number of consonants that can occur at the end of a syllable is four.

However, some consonant clusters can also occur in the middle. Let us look at examples of consonant clusters in words or syllables. The consonants are represented by the symbol “C” and the number of consonant clusters is determined by the number of consonant clusters in the word or syllable. Let us use symbol “V” to represent vowels.

1. Syllable-initial Consonant Clusters occur at the beginning of the word or syllable as shown in the following examples.

pray……CCV………two consonant cluster class……CCVC………two consonant cluster spray…...CCCV….....three consonant cluster scream…CCCVC……three consonant cluster

2. Syllable-medial Consonant Clusters occur in the middle of the word or syllable as indicated in the examples below.

handing…..CVCCVC…..two consonant cluster banger……CVCCV……..two consonant cluster

3. Syllable-final Consonant Clusters occur at the end of the word or syllable as illustrated below.

caps………CVCC……..two consonant cluster books……..CVCC……..two consonant cluster banks..……CVCCC…...three consonant cluster help(e)d……CVCCC……three consonant cluster prompts…CCVCCCC…four consonant cluster This is not overly challenging, is it? Let us determine whether you can now identify consonant clusters within a word or syllable.

Activity 7.1 Identifying and articulating of consonant clusters

1. Ring the consonant clusters in the following words and classify them according to syllable-initial consonant clusters and syllable-final consonant clusters.

nets, split, thank, black, scolding, post, risks, task, square, train

2. Identify more examples of consonant clusters that could happen at the initial and final positions.

3. Now with your knowledge of consonant clusters, form/create your own words that have consonant clusters at the initial and final positions.

4. Let us play a game. In mixed ability groups, create tongue twisters out of some consonant clusters and practise them.

Tongue twisters

5. Complete the table below with examples of words that contain the consonant clusters given.

Syllable-Initial Consonant Clusters

Syllable-Medial Consonant Clusters

Syllable-Final Consonant Cluster

/br/ - /fr/ - /gr/ - /kl/ (cl) – /sk/ (sc) – /sl/ - /tr/ - /bl/ - /nd/ - /ng/ - /ld/ - /mp/ - /st/ - /nd/ - /ld/ - /rst/ -

6. This should be clear now. Practise more with your friends writing sentences and short poems with words containing consonant clusters. You are encouraged to read more on consonant clusters.

This section is packed with opportunities to enhance your oral language, reading and grammar skills. In our Oral Language lesson, we will focus on the accurate pronunciation of words that contain consonant clusters, including those with silent sounds. Mastering these clusters will improve your clarity and confidence in spoken communication.

Next, our Reading lesson will encourage you to explore a variety of level-appropriate texts. You will practise reading fluently, which is essential for comprehension and enjoyment of literature or text. Finally, in our Grammar session, we will analyse the appropriate use of subjects and verbs in everyday communication. Understanding the relationship between these two elements is fundamental for constructing clear and effective sentences. Get ready to engage with language in diverse ways as we build on your skills and deepen your understanding of effective communication!

Key Ideas

• Consonant clusters combine consonant sounds which are permitted in a given language.

• Reading fluently is the ability to read with accuracy, speed, and proper expression.

• Readers and listeners enjoy great benefits during fluent reading.

• Subjects of sentences must agree with the verbs in terms number, person and gender.

(PRACTICE) (Continuation From Section Seven)

Clustered consonants are crucial in speech as they impact pronunciation, fluency, and clarity. When sounds (and in this case consonant clusters) are properly articulated, readers or listeners will get the meaning and/or information the speaker is trying to communicate, beautiful/natural rhythms will be created or maintained and these will contribute to beauty.

Usage of Clustered Words in Speech

As we learned in Section 7, consonant clusters could happen with two or more consonant sounds which appear at the initial (beginning), medial (middle) or final (ending) parts of a word. Some examples are; cloud, plant, practice, monster, band, ant. Now let us practise some of these clusters in connected speech.

Note:Some learners may not be able to articulate some of the sounds as expected. Help them if you can. If they are still not able to articulate these sounds, help them by referring them to your teacher instead of laughing at them.

1. Stars shine bright at night.

2. Trotro drivers do not always adhere to traffic signs.

3. Please bring brand new plates to the dining hall.

4. You cannot spray that insecticide here.

5. We can only create black and brown models.

6. Last week’s project will be collected on Tuesday.

7. Our beds are smaller than the Nkansahs’.

8. The strength of the storm surprised everyone in the neighbourhood.

9. She played the flute beautifully during the school performance.

10. The psychologist analysed the patient's thoughts carefully.

Commonly Mispronounced Words Involving

Consonant Clusters

Most languages have sounds which combine to form clusters or words. How these sounds combine to form clusters differs in each language. If the first language you learn to speak is not English, you may carry the direct and indirect rules of clusters or pronunciation in that language into English Language which may not apply there.

For example, in English, /sks/ can occur in words like ‘asks’ and ‘tasks’ but this combination may not be present in your first or local language (L1). This can lead to mispronunciation and as a result, misunderstanding. Some of these commonly mispronounced sounds are:

1. The letters ‘s’ and ‘k’ when put side by side can be interchanged or mispronounced.

Examples in words include ask, which is sometimes pronounced as ‘aks’, ‘task’ which is mispronounced as ‘task’ and ‘masks’ which is also sometimes pronounced as ‘maks’ where the first ‘s’ is omitted completely.

2. The sound /r/ is also sometimes replaced with /l/ and vice versa. This occurs in words like: broom, bloom, glory, reverend, clown.

3. Sometimes, ‘th’ sounds like /d/ or /t/ in words like ‘this’, ‘thing’, ‘that’ and ‘they’.

Silent Consonants in Consonant Clusters

Silent consonants in consonant clusters can be tricky, as they often lead to confusion in pronunciation.

Table 9.1: Some common examples of silent consonants in consonant clusters.

Cluster silent letter Example in words ‘mb’ ‘b’ Lamb, comb, numb, plumb, bomb ‘kn’ ‘k’ Know, knot, knew, knead, knife ‘wr’ ‘w’ Write, wrist, wring, wrestle, wrap ‘pn’ ‘p’ Pneumonia, pneumatic ‘ps’ ‘p’ Psyche, psychology, pseudo, psalm, ‘btl’ or ‘bt’ ‘b’ Subtle, subtlety, doubt ‘st’ or ‘stl’ ‘t’ Wrestle, castle, Christmas, thistle, apostle ‘bt’ ‘b’ Subtle Clustered consonants play a vital role in the fluency and clarity of speech. Understanding their usage helps both language learners and native speakers communicate more effectively. By practising pronunciation and being aware of the challenges associated with clustered consonants, speakers can enhance their overall speech quality.

Activity 9.1 Explaining Consonant Clusters

The class rep or class prefect or a volunteer should lead this whole class discussion.

1. As a class discuss what consonant clusters are.

2. Every learner should give an example of a word that has at least a consonant cluster.

Activity 9.2 Brainstorming Consonant Clusters

1. Invite two classmates of mixed abilities to take part in the following activities with you. You will need a watch, a sheet of paper and a pen for this activity.

2. Time yourselves to three minutes.

3. Each learner should make a list of as many commonly mispronounced English consonant clusters as possible.

4. At the end of three minutes, put all your words together in one list and in turns, articulate these clusters or words correctly.

Activity 9.3 Exemplifying Consonant Clusters

Your teacher or a volunteer can lead this whole class activity. It is a competition.

1. Form two mixed-ability groups.

2. Complete the table below with as many consonant clusters as possible which occur at the initial, medial or final positions of words.

Initial Cluster Medial Cluster Final Cluster

Cl st lk

2. Get a manila card or A4 sheets, a pair of scissors, a marker and 3 bowls or boxes.

3. Cut the Manila cards or A4 sheets into smaller sizes and write each of the consonant clusters on each of the cards with the marker. Write boldly and group them according to their position in words.

4. Each group, represented by a learner at a time should shuffle each box or bowl and pick a paper from each of them.

5. The learner then gives an example of a word that has the sound occurring in that position, each correct word carries five marks.

Welcome back! We are pleased to see you reach this part. Here, we will examine three key areas that are essential for enhancing your language skills. First, our Oral Language segment will look at the intricate aspects of stress and intonation, highlighting how these elements influence meaning in spoken communication. This will help you convey your message more effectively. Next, in our Reading Lesson, we will focus on summarising techniques. You will learn a structured approach to answering summary questions, which is crucial for comprehension and analysis of texts. Finally, our Grammar lesson will cover the principles and usage of active and passive voice. This will enable you to choose the appropriate voice to enhance clarity and impact in your writing. Get ready to engage with these topics and develop your skills further!

Key Ideas

• Active voice is the form of verb that describes the subject as the performer of an action.

• Intonation refers to the variation of pitch while speaking. It can signal different meanings or emotions.

• Meaning is the combination of stress and intonation which contributes to the overall meaning of a spoken language.

• Passive voice is the form of the verb that describes the subject as the performer of an action.

• Stress in language means the emphasis placed on certain syllables or words in speech.

It can change the meaning of a word or sentence.

• Summary is a brief/short presentation of a larger text or material but maintaining essential information.

Stress Stress in language refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables or words in speech.

It can change the meaning of a word or sentence. There are two main types of stress.

1. Word Level Stress: In words that have more than one syllable (multisyllabic words), a syllable is usually stressed more than the others. This is known as primary stress. For example, in the word ‘present’, when pronounced as a noun, the stress is on the first syllable (PRE-sent), but as a verb, the stress is on the second syllable (pre-SENT).

2. Sentence Stress: Where emphasis is placed on particular words in sentences, the meaning can be highlighted or changed. This is what is known as ‘sentence stress’.

There are two types of sentence stress.

a. Emphatic stress: This is when emphasis is placed on a word to highlight importance. E.g. I CAN go to the market.

b. Contrastive stress: It occurs where each word in the sentence, when stressed can alter the meaning of the sentence completely. E.g., In the sentence ‘I didn't say he stole the money’, stressing each word in a separate utterance changes the meaning:

‘I’ (someone else) ‘Didn't’ (implying a denial) ‘Say’ (implying another form of communication) ‘He’ (implying someone else) ‘Stole’ (maybe borrowed or earned) ‘The money’ (something else).

With a partner explore how the meaning of this sentence changes when stress changes.

Intonation At certain points in speech, a speaker’s voice may rise or fall. That is what is called intonation. It refers to the variation of pitch while speaking. Intonation is used to convey different meanings, emotions and attitudes. It can signal different meanings or emotions. There are two types of intonation: Rising and Falling Intonation.

1. Rising and Falling Intonation: Rising Intonation typically occurs in yes/no questions, indicating uncertainty or asking for confirmation. For example, ‘Are you coming?’

2. Falling Intonation often signifies statements, commands, or wh-questions, conveying certainty. For example, ‘I am coming.’

Meaning The same sentence can imply different meanings based on intonation. For example, ‘You're going to wear that?’ can be a statement of surprise or a question, depending on the intonation pattern. Meaning therefore refers to the ideas, information, emotions and intentions that are conveyed or deduced in speech. A combination of stress and intonation contributes to the overall meaning of spoken language. Here is how they interact:

1. In a semantic context, the literal meanings of words are conveyed and deduced.

Proper use of stress and intonation helps clarify the speaker's message, making it easier for the listener to understand the intended meaning.

2. Furthermore, in a pragmatic context, the implied meaning based on the situation, context or the speaker’s intentions is unfolded. For instance, ‘I love chocolate’ can be interpreted differently if one stresses ‘I,’ ‘love,’ or ‘chocolate.’

3. Finally, in communication, the overall goal which could be either to educate, inform, request, question or to express emotions is communicated.

Different languages and cultures have unique patterns of stress and intonation, which can influence how meaning is conveyed. Learning these patterns is important for effective communication in diverse settings.

Interplay of Meaning and Stress

Stress helps to convey meaning in different ways. Let us look at some instances where it can be used to communicate effectively:

1. Clarifying Intent: Stress helps in stating what one wants to say clearly. This points out the implied meaning of speech outrightly. With the use of stress, one is able to make his/her intentions known. e.g. I want THIS.

2. Disambiguation of words: there are some words or expressions that could mean different things at different points in time. Through stress, one is able to determine which on the many meanings an expression is pointing to. For example: ‘You, PRESENT this day…’ can be understood as ‘You who are here today…’ not ‘someone presenting the day (to another person, probably)’. This would have taken a second guess to understand if it was written.

3. Enhancing understanding: When stress is effectively done, understanding flows freely to the audience of the given speech or utterance.

4. Enhancing richness of oral communication: Overall, stress enriches oral communication and makes it even more pleasurable to listen to than reading.

Interplay of Intonation and Meaning

Intonation also has a role to play in meaning. It is often used to convey emotions or nuances. Let us look at how intonation influences meaning:

1. Intonation is what is used to express emotions such as happiness, surprise, doubt, love and anger.

a. A Rising intonation often denotes questions or uncertainty. For example:

i. Are you coming?

ii. Did you finish your homework?

b. A Falling Intonation is used to convey certainty. For example:

i. I will be there.

ii. I have a black cat.

c. A Fall-Rise intonation is used to indicate politeness. For example:

i. You could sit here and wait for him

ii. Kindly give me a pencil.

d. A Rise-Fall intonation is used to express surprise. For example: It’s good to see you.

2. Intonation helps to differentiate sentence types. A rising, falling or rise-fall intonation can suggest a statement, question or an exclamation. Each of these have been exemplified below:

These sentence types have been discussed in previous sections, refer to them for further clarification.

a. Statements often end with a falling intonation. For example:

i. I just returned from break.

ii. I was at the pavilion with our house master.

b. Questions also end with rising intonation (refer to 1 above).

c. Commands have a falling intonation. For example:

i. Go and sit down!

ii. Open your locker!

d. Exclamations usually take a rise-fall intonation. For example:

i. What a beautiful day.

ii. That’s a nice skirt.

3. Apart from these, intonation can be used to clarify meaning. The emphasis on a certain word can indicate a fact, seek clarification or express excitement.

For example:

a. We are here. (fact)

b. We are here? (seeking clarification)

c. We are here! (expressing excitement)

4. Moreover, intonation brings out cultural and contextual nuances. In American English spreading from the San Fernando Valley in California, for instance, it is fashionable to employ breathy, rising intonation at the end of most sentences, giving a sing-song effect, either cute or irritating depending on the listener’s perspective.

‘Valley speak’ has been fashionable for the past fifty years, but its popularity is perhaps declining. Check it out online. The stress and intonation are markers of fashion in this form of speaking.

5. Intonation adds nuances and clarity to speech. Thus, intonation brings meaning, clarifies the intentions with which we speak and enhances general expressiveness.

Intonation, stress and meaning go hand in hand. When intonation and stress are used appropriately, intended meaning is easy to achieve and communication is then said to be effective.

Why not practise some intonations and stress in your speech? You will improve as you practise.

Activity 13.1 Extraction of Relevant Information from a Selected Text Theatre The scene is the backyard of a house by the seaside. The rear side of the house is on stage right, the far corner prodding into the stage. It is painted white, with two windows (both visible to audience), painted black. We see one or two stools about. Midway stage left is a large petrol drum used for storing water. The lid to this is a heavy wooden slab. Upstage are four or five railings on which fishing nets are spread to dry. Beyond these are a few coconut trees silhouetted against the setting sun. The time is late afternoon. When the curtain goes up, we see Sumako standing upstage (back to audience), intently gazing into the distance. When he turns round, we see a disturbed old man greying on the temples. He is a bit muscle-bound in his movements and looks rather strong for his age. He walks down right, plants himself on a stool and starts mending a fishing net. He quickly absorbs himself in this occupation with an occasional pause to remove the pipe from his mouth. A moment later, Duella enters-down left. She has a mature body which she carries with unaffected grace and defiance. She’s about twenty. She is carrying a pail of water on her head; she goes to the drum and turns an enquiring eye to her father, but the old man is so preoccupied that he does not notice this.

1. From the above extract, what message is the speaker trying to put across?

2. Join your friends in a simple conversation. Example, to make a request or caution a friend. Let the other members in the class interpret the purpose or the intended meaning of the speaker in relation to the context of speaking.

3. Open the internet browser of your ICT tool or YouTube and listen to/watch any video (which your teacher approves of) on any Ghanaian song and interpret the meaning of the lyrics in the song.