Grammar Usage

The Phrase

Figure 1.4: Image of a definition of phrase with its types A phrase is a group of words that has no subject and predicate and functions virtually as a single unit of speech. A phrase does not express a complete thought as it does not express a full idea. It provides only partial information that needs to be put into context to make it meaningful. For example, if someone says to you, ‘in the market’, you will wonder if the speaker is talking about who was in the market or what happened in the market. The speaker would therefore have to provide additional information for meaning to be achieved. Thus, although phrases provide nuanced meaning in the overall context, they leave room for more questions. Nonetheless, phrases help provide additional information, convey meaning, enhance structure and ultimately facilitate effective communication as they create rhythm and colour in speech and writing.

For example:

1. [The children on the bus] [are going] [on a trip].

2. [All my friends] [will be invited] [to the party].

3. [The learner] [jumped] [for joy] [at the sight of the president].

4. [In spite of the discouragements], [they] [never gave] [up].

All the bracketed parts in the above sentences might be regarded as phrases.

Types of Phrases

Noun Phrase (N)

It is a word or group of words that is naming something and functions as single grammatical unit – a noun – in context. A noun phrase has a noun as a head word.

A noun phrase can be made up of a noun alone, A determiner(a, the, this) + noun, An adjective + noun or a combination of determiners, adjectives, and nouns. A noun phrase functions like a single noun in a sentence. Noun phrases answers the question who, what, which and whose as seen in the example:

The children on the bus are going to Takoradi.

It is noted that ‘the children on the bus ‘answers the question ‘Who are going to Takoradi?” This makes “the children on the bus” a noun phrase.

Other examples:

a. The extremely talented singer signed a recording deal. (Who signed a recording deal?)

b. Your laptop was found in the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) lab. (What was found in the ICT lab?)

c. The person standing under the tree in the African print clothing is the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the new company. (Who is the CEO of the new company?)

d. Ghana-made chocolates are tastier than foreign ones. (Which is tastier?)

Identification of the Noun Phrase

₁. The noun phrase is introduced with an article (a, the or an). For example, in:

The beautiful landscape of the Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park attracts tourists.

A traditional Kente cloth exhibition nearby showcases the rich cultural heritage of Ghana, near an historic Cape Coast Castle.

It is noted that the beautiful landscape, the Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park, a traditional Kente cloth, the rich cultural heritage and an historic Cape Coast Castle are all noun phrases. These phrases begin with articles; ‘a, an, the’.

2. The noun phrase is introduced with possessive adjectives. They include my, your, his, her, our and their. For example:

a. My mother’s favourite traditional dish is Tuo Zaafi and ‘Ayoyo’ soup.

b. Her cooking skills are unmatched.

c. Your attention to detail in traditional crafts is impressive.

Here, it is noted that all the underlined noun phrases begin with a possessive adjective.

3. A noun phrase begins with demonstratives – this, that, these and those.

For example:

a. This vibrant city of Accra is known for its Homowo festival.

b. Those historic monuments in Cape Coast attract tourists worldwide.

c. That traditional kente cloth is a symbol of Ghanaian culture.

d. These local artisans are skilled in woodcarving.

Here, it is noted that all the underlined noun phrases begin with a determiner.

4. A noun phrase may be introduced with quantifiers like both, all, some, few and many. For example:

a. Few Ghanaians have explored the entire regions of the country.

b. Many crafts such as cane weaving and woodcarving require great skill.

c. All Ghanaians celebrate interdependence day on 6th March.

In these examples, it can be observed that all the underlined groups of words are noun phrases which are introduced with quantifiers (the emboldened words).

5. Noun phrases are introduced by titles such as Mr, Mrs, Professor (Prof), Honourable (Hon) and Doctor (Dr). For example:

a. Dr Kwegyir Aggrey was an intellectual, a missionary and a teacher.

b. Prof Ablade Glover is a celebrated Ghanaian visual artist and painter.

c. Hon Sheila Bartels is a member of parliament.

Functions of the Noun Prase (NP)

₁. Noun phrases function as subject of the verb.

These are noun phrases that perform the action of the verb. For example:

a. The Ghanaian parliament has passed several important laws.

b. Traditional farming methods are still practised in rural areas.

c. Ghanaian artists showcase their work at the National Museum.

It is observed that all the underlined groups of words perform the action of the verb ‘passed, practised, showcase’. Thus, the function of the noun phrases will be stated respectively as:

a. Subject of the verb phrase, ‘has passed’.

b. Subject of the verb phrase, ‘are practised’.

c. Subject of the verb, ‘showcase’.

2. Noun phrases also function as object of the verb.

When noun phrases receive the action of the verb, it is said to be functioning as the object of that verb. For example:

a. That Ghanaian musician played only traditional instruments.

b. The learners explored the ancient historic sites of the Savana Region.

c. The professors evaluated the students’ research projects.

From the examples, it is realised that the underlined phrases answer the questions about what was ‘played’, ‘explored’ and ‘evaluated’. Thus, the function of the underlined phrases will be stated respectively as:

a. Object of the verb ‘played’.

b. Object of the verb ‘explored’.

c. object of the verb, ‘evaluated’.

3. Noun phrases function as complement of the noun.

When a noun phrase follows a linking verb and refers to a noun or pronoun, it is said to function as complement. For example:

a. They are a talented group of artists.

b. He became a successful businessman.

c. The city remains a popular tourist destination.

In these examples, the noun phrases follow linking verbs, ‘are, became’ and ‘remains’ and also refer to the pronouns, ‘They’ and ‘He’, and the noun phrase, ‘The city’. This makes them complements of those pronouns and the noun phrase and their function will be stated respectively as:

a. Complement of ‘They’.

b. Complement of ‘He’.

c. Complement of 'The city’.

In the examples below, it is seen that the underlined NPs do not follow linking verbs, but they are referring to other NPs already mentioned in the sentences. Such NPs also complement the elements they are referencing (the grammatical functions of the NPs have been stated in brackets).

a. The coach named the star player the most valuable player. (Grammatical function: complement of the noun phrase, ‘the star player’.

b. The committee elected the experienced politician the party chairman.

(Grammatical function: complement of the noun phrase, ‘the experienced politician’.

4. Noun phrases function as appositives to nouns.

An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that follows another noun or pronoun to identify it. Hence, the noun phrase that follows another noun, pronoun or noun phrase functions as an appositive of that noun, pronoun or noun phrase. The noun phrase is separated from the ‘noun, pronoun or noun phrase’ it is in apposition of with commas. For example:

a. Dr Kofi Annan, a former United Nations (UN) Secretary-General, received the Nobel Peace Prize.

b. Professor Akua Mensah, a renowned Ghanaian historian, lectured on African studies.

c. A monument was erected in honour of the popular Ghanaian musician, E. T.

Mensah.

d. They, talented Ghanaian artists, won the international competition.

From the examples, it is seen that the NP ‘a former UN Secretary-General’ follows another NP, ‘Dr Kofi Annan; the NP ‘a renowned Ghanaian historian’ follows NP, ‘Prof Akua Mensah; the NP ‘ET Mensah’ follows NP ‘the popular Ghanaian musician’ and NP ‘talented Ghanaian artists’ follows the pronoun ‘They’. This makes the underlined NP appositives. Thus, functions of the underlined phrases will be stated respectively as thus:

a. An appositive to ‘Dr Kofi Annan’.

b. An appositive to ‘Professor Akua Mensah’.

c. An appositive to ‘the popular Ghanaian musician’.

d. An appositive to ‘They’.

Note: In your further reading, you may come across the expression ‘in apposition to’; it means the same as the appositive.

5. Noun phrases function as object of the preposition.

This is the noun phrase that is introduced with a preposition. For example:

a. The tourists arrived at the beautiful Gbewa palace.

b. The learners participated in the exciting National Science and Maths Quiz.

c. The athletes trained at the Borteyman Sport Complex for the 2023 All African Games.

In these examples, all the underlined NPs are preceded by prepositions, ‘at, in’ and ‘for’.

Their functions will therefore be stated respectively as:

a. Object of the preposition, ‘at’.

b. Object of the preposition, ‘in’.

c. Object of the preposition, ‘for’.

The Verb Phrase (V/Vp)

It is a word or words that tells us what the subject is doing, what is happening, or the state of the subject. It can consist of only a principal or main verb or the principal and auxiliary verbs (Verbs have treated in Section Eight, Year One of your Learner Material).

Try a read at the extract below:

Every weekday morning, the students run across the compound to get to assembly on time. Ama usually sings softly as she walks, while Kojo writes in his notebook.

By the time the bell rings, everyone has eaten their breakfast and is going to their classrooms. During break time, the boys were playing football when the coach arrived.

He told them they should have finished their warm-up earlier. Later in the afternoon, the heardteacher announced that the school team will come together for final practice.

At sunset, the bus finally arrived, and the tired players jumped on board.

In the extract, these verb phrases can be identified:

More than one-word verb phrase One-word verb phrase has eaten sings is going writes were playing jumped should have finished jumped will come Adjectival Phrase The adjectival phrase qualifies a noun, pronoun or a noun phrase. In other words, it performs the role of an adjective. For example, in ‘The newly elected chairman had high expectations of his followers’, ‘newly elected’ an adjectival phrase because it qualifies the noun, ‘chairman’. Its grammatical function will thus be stated as – it qualifies the noun, ‘chairman’. Other examples and their functions:

1. The carefully crafted wood carvings showcase the artisan’s exceptional skills.

Grammatical function – it qualifies the noun phrase, “wood carvings”.

2. Located at the heart of Damongo in the Savanah region, the ancient historical Larabanga mosque attracts thousands of tourists annually.

Grammatical function – it qualifies the noun phrase, ‘Larabanga mosque’.

3. The highly respected, award-winning Ghanaian author’s latest novel topped the bestseller list.

Grammatical function – it qualifies the noun, ‘novel’.

4. The expertly woven, colourful Kente cloth from Ghana is highly sought after.

Grammatical function – it qualifies the noun phrase, ‘Kente cloth’.

5. The festival celebrating Ghanaian heritage with colourful performances was successful.

Grammatical function – it qualifies the noun phrase, ‘The festival’.

Adverbial Phrase (Adv P)

An adverbial phrase is a phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective and an adverb. Simply put, an adverbial phrase functions as an adverb. Consequently, it modifies by providing information when an action occurs (time), where an action occurs (place), how an action occurs (manner), how often the action occurs (frequency) and the extent of the action (degree). The following examples will give you a clearer insight.

Examples of Adverbial Phrase of Time

a. By next year, Ghana will celebrate its 69th independence anniversary.

b. At dawn, the fishermen set sail.

Examples of Adverbial Phrase of Place

a. Outside the Essipon stadium in Takoradi, Ghanaian fans gathered to cheer.

b. There lies a beautiful beach near the Cape Coast castle.

Examples of Adverbial Phrase of Manner

a. The craftsman carved the cain chairs extremely carefully.

b. The facilitator spoke very softly to the learners.

Examples of Adverbial Phrase of Frequency

a. The company reviews its financial performance every quarter.

b. We are advised to visit the dentist twice a year.

Examples of Adverbial Phrase of Degree

a. Fairly quickly, the captain scored a goal. (Shows the moderate degree of speed.)

b. Very carefully, the surgeon performed the delicate operation. (The degree of care in performing the operation.)

How to State the Grammatical Function of the

Adverbial Phrase

1. Slightly haltingly, the Ghanaian player continued playing the game.

Grammatical function – it modifies the verb phrase, ‘continued playing’.

2. He is extremely happy.

Grammatical function – it modifies the adjective, ‘happy’.

3. The athletes ran quite swiftly during the marathon.

Grammatical function – it modifies the adverb, ‘quite’.

Functions of Adverbial Phrase

₁. Generally, adverbial phrases modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs as has been discussed already.

2. It is used to provide information concerning time, place, degree, frequency and manner in speech and writing. For example:

a. The conference was held at the Kumasi Arts Centre. (providing information about a place)

b. The child actor performed exceptionally well yesterday. (providing information about degree/extent of performance)

3. It can function as a single unit of a sentence. For example:

a. Aisha works with great enthusiasm.

b. This is incredibly exciting.

4. It is used to show relationships between actions, events or ideas. For example:

a. I plan to pursue a career in robotics after graduation. (Adv P shows the chronology of action).

b. The team was preparing for the tournament; in the meantime, the coach was fired (it shows the simultaneous nature of actions).

Prepositional Phrase (PP)

It is a phrase that precedes a pronoun, noun or noun phrase with a preposition. In other words, a prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a pronoun, noun or a noun phrase. It thus has the structure; PREPOSITION + PRONOUN. For

example:

Functions of Prepositional Phrases (PP)

When used in sentences, prepositional phrases function as adjuncts (adverbial or adjectival).

1. Prepositional phrases modifying verbs As adverbials, prepositional phrases modify verbs. In the example, ‘The complex painting was done on the wall’, it is realised that the prepositional phrase ‘on the wall’ provides information about where the painting was done. In this sentence therefore ‘on the wall’ is a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial.

Other examples and their functions include:

a. The elder’s words are laced with wisdom and experience.

Grammatical function – modifies the verb phrase ‘are laced’.

b. Their joyful voices echo through the halls.

Grammatical function – modifies the verb ‘echo’.

c. The stranger was greeted by the palace’s stern guardian.

Grammatical function – modifies the verb phrase ‘was greeted’.

d. During harmattan, the atmosphere becomes dry.

Grammatical function – modifies the verb ‘becomes’.

2. Prepositional Phrases modifying nouns, pronouns or noun phrases Prepositional phrases can qualify pronouns, nouns or noun phrases in sentences.

For instance, in ‘The new building at the outskirt of town has been razed down by fire’, the underlined prepositional phrase ‘at the outskirt of town’, is qualifying/ describing ‘the new building’. This is why prepositional phrases that behave like adjectives in context are also called adjectival phrases. It is also the reason for stating the grammatical functions of such prepositional phrases as adjectival phrases.

Consider the examples below:

a. Only the women at the fish market were allowed to see the minister.

Grammatical function – qualifies the noun, ‘women’.

b. Judgement was pronounced based on the constitution of Ghana.

Grammatical function – qualifies the noun phrase, ‘the constitution’.

c. University graduates are encouraged to consider entrepreneurship as an alternative source of employment.

Grammatical function – qualifies the noun, ‘source’.

d. The children are doing their homework on their tablets.

Grammatical function – qualifies the noun phrase, ‘their homework’.

Absolute Phrase

An absolute is a phrase that modifies an entire sentence. The phrase comes before or after the main clause and cannot stand alone in a sentence. It always contains a pronoun, noun or noun phrase which is preceded by a participle. An absolute phrase is always set apart from the main clause with a comma. It is used to give additional information to the main clause it is connected to.

Let us consider the three sentences below:

1. They awaited the verdict of the judge.

2. Their hearts beat faster than normal while waiting for the judge’s verdict.

3. Their hearts beating faster than normal, they awaited the verdict of the judge.

Sentence (1) is just a main clause without any phrase. Sentence (2) has a phrase attached to the main clause. The phrase even has a participle, ‘waiting’ but the participle is not preceded by a noun, or a noun phrase hence (2) does not have an absolute phrase.

Sentence (3) just like sentence (2) has a main clause and a phrase. Unlike (2), (1) has a participle, ‘beating’ and a noun phrase, ‘Their hearts’ preceding it. The phrase is also set off from the main clause with a comma. Thus, the phrase in sentence (3) is an absolute phrase.

Examples of Absolute Phrases

a. Their homework having been completed, the siblings watch a movie with their parent’s permission.

b. With the dogs barking ferociously, the visitor refused to enter the compound of the house.

c. The learners solved the equations immediately, their brains working like a computer.

Functions of Absolute Phrases

₁. They are used to add descriptive information to main clauses thereby making sentences colourful. For example:

a. His voice trembling, the new Human Resource Executive addressed the workers for the first time.

b. Shouting for joy, the constituents celebrated the exit of their representative.

2. They are used to describe the state under which the action of the main clause occurs. For example:

a. Yawning drowsily, the author struggled to pen the final chapter of her new book.

b. His eyes filling with tears, the man recounted how he lost his wealth to a natural disaster.

3. They are used to show the reason of an action. For example:

a. The baby crying, the caretaker lulled her to sleep.

b. The milk becoming lumpy, thick and yellow, the chef discarded it.

Participial Phrases

A participial phrase is a phrase that begins with an -ing/-ed/-en verb and functions as an adjective by qualifying a noun or a pronoun. The participial phrase can be positioned at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence.

Types of Participial Phrases

1. Present Participial Phrase – This is the participial phrase that begins with the

-ing form of the verb. Example:

a. Beaming with smiles, best teacher walked towards the podium. (describing the expression on the face of the teacher)

b. The cultural troupe, dancing at the durbar, entertained the crowd.

c. The learners, studying diligently, attained outstanding grades.

d. The pungent smell of rotten fruits filled the air, walking through the market.

2. Past Participial Phrase – It is the participial phrase that begins with an -ed or form of the verb. Example:

a. Affected by the dry spell, the farmers struggled to harvest crops.

b. Titi, exhausted from the journey, fell asleep in the coach.

c. Inspired by the President’s speech, Ghanaians decided to rally behind him.

d. Ashamed of that behaviour, I disassociated myself from it.

The past participial phrases include the irregular form of the past perfect form of verbs. The irregular form of the past perfect verbs are those verbs that undergo vowel change or have an -en ending.

Example:

a. Beaten by the rain, I fell ill.

b. Written off by the school authority, he ventured into a very lucrative business.

Functions of Participial Phrases

1. Participial phrases qualify nouns or pronouns thereby adding detail to them. For

example,

a. Sworn into office, the newly elected president addressed the nation. (qualifies ‘the president’)

b. The candidates, having studied all night, felt confident of their performance.

2. They are used to provide information about the verb. For example,

a. Singing beautifully, the band auditioned for the slot. (manner of singing)

b. Speaking confidently, the team won the competition. (how the team spoke).

3. They are used to create striking imagery in speech and writing. For example,

a. Jogging through the misty dawn, I felt invigorated.

b. Singing in the rain, Fuseina’s voice soared.

c. Listening to the melodies of the orchestra, the audience was mesmerised.

Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase is a phrase that begins with a gerund. A gerund is the -ing form of the verb that functions as a noun in a sentence. For instance, in ‘Singing is my hobby’, ‘singing’ is a gerund. This is because it looks like a verb typically but in this context, it has been used as a noun functioning as subject. A gerund phrase begins with a gerund followed by modifiers/adverb, object or complements.

Let us look at the various structures of a gerund phrase.

1. Gerund + Modifier/Adverb For example:

a. Their singing with rhythm captivated the by-standers.

b. Frequent yawning brought the show to an end, and the children were asked to retire for the day.

c. Extensive frowning showed the workers’ opposition to the new policy.

2. Gerund + Object For example:

a. Singing hymns uplifts one’s spirits.

b. Counselling people requires special skill.

3. Gerund + Prepositional Phrase For example:

a. Singing in the choir requires dedication.

b. Writing at the beach gives me inspiration.

c. Jogging at dawn rejuvenates me.

4. Having + Past Participle + Adverbs/Modifier (optional) For example:

a. Having studied all night, the learners were hopeful of their chances.

b. Having sung for decades, Kojo Antwi performed immaculately.

Functions of Gerund Phrases

₁. Gerund phrases function as subject of a verb in a sentence. For example:

a. Singing in the shower relaxes me. (Subject of the verb, ‘relaxes’)

b. Jogging at dawn rejuvenates me. (subject of the verb, ‘rejuvenates’)

2. They function as objects in sentences. For example:

a. I love singing in the shower. (object of ‘love’)

b. The sibling enjoys playing ampe every afternoon. (object of 'enjoys playing’)

c. My friend earned a scholarship by participating in the robotics competition.

(object of the preposition ‘by’)

3. They function as complements. For example:

a. My friend’s hobby is creating new inventions. (complement of the verb ‘is’)

b. His passion is teaching young people. (complement of ‘is’) Infinitive Phrase An infinitive phrase is a phrase that begins with an infinitive form of the verb and functions as a noun, an adverb and an adjective. An infinitive is the base for of a verb, beginning with ‘to’ and followed by a verb. For example, to learn, to browse, to surf and to survey. An infinitive phrase therefore has an infinitive form of the verb followed by modifiers (i.e. adjectives or adverbs) and complements. The structure of an infinitive phrase has been shown as follows:

1. The Infinitive: For example, to give, to promote, to excel and to conquer

2. Infinitive + Adverbs: For example, to loiter aimlessly, to dance majestically, to laugh uncontrollably.

3. Infinitive + Adjective: For example, to be affectionate, to be exact, to be determined.

4. Infinitive + Noun/Noun Phrase: For example, to be an entrepreneur, to an inventor, to keep their friendship

5. Any of the Structures above + Modifiers: For example,

a. Infinitive + Modifier – My father loves to give to a good cause

b. Infinitive + Adverb + Modifier – To dance majestically in Kente cloth gives me a sense of pride.

c. Infinitive + Adjective + Modifier – People obliged to be affectionate to children

d. Infinitive + Noun + Modifier – The benefactor decided to show affection to the orphans.

Functions of Infinitive Phrases

₁. Infinitive phrases function as subjects of verbs in sentences. For example:

a. To work at National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the dream.

b. To experience Easter in Kwahu is enjoyable.

2. Infinitive phrases function as objects of verbs in sentences. For example:

a. They wish to play for the Black Stars.

b. The family plan to relocate to Bolgatanga.

3. Infinitive phrases serve as complements in sentences. For example:

a. The dream is to work at National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

b. The vision of the nation is to educate the youth.

4. They also serve as adjectives in sentences. For example:

a. The way to go is Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education.

b. The country to visit in Africa is Ghana.

5. Infinitive phrases are used to as adverbs in sentences. For example:

a. The dancer was attired to reflect his Ghanaian culture.

b. The children participated to win.

Clause A clause is a group of words with a subject and a predicate. It may or may not convey a complete thought depending on the type of clause or the intention of the writer/ speaker.

Types of Clauses

There are two kinds of a clause – the main/independent/principal clause and the subordinate/dependent clause.

Figure 1.5: Types of Clauses

1. The Main Clause

This clause conveys meaning and can stand on its own. For example:

a. I∕ danced.

b. We∕ explored the museum.

c. They ∕were admonished to obey school rules.

d. The clock in the examination hall∕ does not work.

e. Despite the odds, ∕ the orphan ∕became a successful academician.

All the examples above have subjects (separated from the predicate with slashes);

predicates and can stand alone hence are main clauses.

2. The Subordinate Clause

The subordinate clause is a clause that does not convey meaning on its own.

Consequently, it needs to be attached to a main clause to complete its meaning. For

example:

a. Even though∕ the rains∕ fell as predicted

b. Before∕ they∕ went on vacation

c. As soon as ∕we ∕ heard the news

d. So that ∕our hard work∕ is rewarded

e. Because ∕their direction ∕was unreliable Although all the examples above have subjects (separated from the predicates by slashes) and predicates, they do not express a complete thought. This is why they are called subordinate clauses; they depend on main clauses to be meaningful.

Activity 1.4 Identification of Phrases and Types

1. Read the extract below from the novel, The Kaya Girl, written by Mamle Wolo.

Our trip into cyberspace was interrupted by a customer. As the door opened, I pushed Faiza away from the computer and she grabbed a broom and busied herself with it at the far end of the shop, like a regular worker. The customer wanted some custom jewellery, and I brought out several sets from their glass display case. She chose one, paid for it and left. (Chapter Five, page 34)

2. How many sentences make up the paragraph?

3. Sentence after sentence, answer the following questions and underline the answers with a pencil:

Sentence One

a. What was interrupted?

b. Mention the kind of trip that was interrupted.

c. How was it interrupted?

d. Which words convey the action in the sentence (applicable to all)?

Sentence Two

a. When was Faiza pushed away?

b. In what direction was Faiza pushed?

c. What did she grab?

d. Where did she busy herself?

Sentence Three

a. Who wanted some custom jewellery?

b. Write down what the customer want.

c. What was brought out?

d. Where were the several sets brought out from?

4. Label the groups of words in answering the following questions:

a. Which groups of words answer the questions ‘who’ ‘what’? Label them as noun phrases.

b. Which groups of words answer the questions ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’?

Label them as adverbial phrases.

c. Which groups of words describes or qualifies a noun/noun phrase? Label them as adjectival phrase.

d. Which groups of words communicate action? Label them as verb phrases.

Label them as verb phrases.

e. Which groups of words begin with a preposition and end with a noun/noun phrase?

5. What do you observe about:

a. the phrase?

b. the various types of phrases?

Activity 1.5 Identification of Clause and their Types

1. Play ‘Excuse Me’ game with your peers of four.

a. Start by saying ‘Excuse me’ and then follow with the excuse statement.

b. For example, ‘Excuse me, can I talk to you for a minute, before I go to the washroom?’

c. Use varied sentence structure and get creative with your excuse me statements.

d. Also, make a mental note of your excuse me statements.

e. Do this until all your peers have had their turn.

2. Write down all your excuse me statements. In discussion with your peers identify the subjects and predicates in each of the sentences. The number of subjects with its corresponding predicates will tell you the number of clauses there are in the statements. For example, in:

(‘Excuse me), can I talk to you for a minute before I go to the washroom’, there are two subjects, ‘I’ and two predicates ‘can. . . talk to you for a minute’ and ‘before…go to the washrooms. This indicates the presence of two clauses –

a. ‘Can I talk to you for a minute’ and

b. ‘before I go to the washroom’.

3. Label the clauses that can stand alone as main/independent clause and those that cannot stand alone as subordinate/ dependent clause. You can draw a

table for this activity.

This Section is designed to enhance your understanding of three fundamental aspects of communication: subordinate clauses in grammar, cohesive devices for effective writing, and the exploration of literary genres to enrich your appreciation of literature.

Through the discussions and assessment activities, you will learn that subordinate clauses' functions are essential for mastering the complexity of sentence structures.

The lesson will also help you understand how cohesive devices are essential tools that help connect ideas, ensuring that your writing flows logically and is easy to follow. The lesson on poems as a genre of Literature will guide you better to appreciate its richness.

You are encouraged to follow the lesson carefully and perform all the activities to enable you to measure your progress.

Key Ideas

• Cohesive devices are words or expressions in a text or utterance that connect related ideas or messages.

• Paragraph coherence can convey meaning clearly.

• Poetry Appreciation refers to the understanding and enjoyment of poetry as an art form.

• Subordinate Clause depends on another clause to make it meaningful.

• Subordinator is a type of conjunction that is used to join clauses with unequal grammatical importance (i.e. the main and subordinate clauses). In other words, it is used to introduce a dependent clause or to render one clause subordinate.

• In poetry themes are the underlying messages, central ideas, or concepts that the poet explores throughout the work.

A subordinate clause, also referred to as a dependent clause, is a clause that cannot convey full meaning on its own. This is because it is introduced with a subordinate conjunction (refer to Section 12 of Year One Learner Material). Let us consider these two clauses:

1. I will lend you the book.

2. After I have read the book.

What do you observe? Your guess is as good as mine! The first one provides a complete meaning. However, the second one does not. This is due to the introduction of a subordinator ‘after’ which has rendered an otherwise main clause subordinate. To make the subordinate clause ‘after I have read the book’ meaningful, we need to attach it to ‘I will lend you the book’ to become:

3. After I have read the book, I will lend it to you.

Sentence (3) is meaningful and is also more complex than sentences (1) and (2).

By attaching sentences (1) to (2) we have communicated when the book will be lent to the addressee.

Other examples:

1. My parents will attend the ceremony, even though they were not invited.

2. The person who inspired me to be a journalist is Barbara Gaisie.

3. We went to the market to buy tomatoes, but we couldn't because we lost the money.

All the underlined groups of words are subordinate clauses. They are introduced by subordinating conjunctions ‘even though’, ‘who’, ‘because’ and ‘while’.

Now, let us see how you can identify subordinate clauses in larger sentences.

Identification of Subordinate Clauses

The following can help you identify subordinate clauses in larger sentences.

1. Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions or subordinators such as because, until, if, although, while, unless and so.

For example:

a. The company went bankrupt because of their lack of commitment to duty.

b. Until you love yourself, nobody will value you.

All the underlined groups of words are subordinate clauses; they begin with subordinators, all emboldened.

2. They begin with relative pronouns (refer to section 3 of year one learner material) like what, that, which, when, who, whose, why and how.

For example:

a. The question that I asked was not answered.

b. What you said is encouraging.

The underlined groups of words are subordinate clauses; they begin with relative pronouns, all emboldened.

3. They have subjects and predicates.

For example:

a. The building which belongs to my family was razed by fire.

b. The company that signed the artiste is foreign.

The underlined groups of words are subordinate clauses. In as much as they are dependent on the main clauses for meaning, each of them has a subject and a predicate as presented below:

Subject Predicate

which belongs to that signed the artiste

4. They are not meaningful on their own.

All the clauses below are subordinate clauses because they cannot stand alone to make meaning:

a. That I asked

b. Who came here

c. What you said Types of Subordinate Clauses Three types can be identified based on the function of subordinate clauses: adverb, relative(adjective) and noun clauses. Study the chart below.

Figure 2.1: An image of the types of subordinate clauses

1. The Adverbial Clause – they modify verbs, adjectives or adverbs

2. Relative/Adjective Clause – they qualify nouns or pronouns

3. Noun clause – they name something.

We shall discuss the types in detail in the next sections.

Let us do some activities!

Activity 2.1Identify the main and subordinate clauses

1. Below is a three-sentence paragraph from Kaya Girl by Mamle Wolo page 96/97. Read and underline all the subordinate clauses.

It was my first day at the university. My parents had just left after dropping me at my hall of residence and helping me carry my things to my room… As for mummy, if she was weeping saying goodbye to me here at the University of Ghana, I wondered what she would have done if I were going to America.

2. What do you observe about subordinate conjunctions and relative pronouns in the paragraph above?

Activity 2.2 Forming Subordinate Clauses

Do this activity with three friends.

1. Write some subordinators and relative pronouns on a piece of paper and scramble them in a box.

2. Sit in a circle, just like the image below, A friend picks a paper from the box and forms a sentence using the subordinator or relative pronoun picked. Do this until everyone has had their turn. How many subordinate clauses were you able to form? Write them down.

Activity 2.3 Identification of Clause Types

1. Replace the underlined groups of words with a noun or pronoun:

a. I won’t forget what you did.

b. How I survive is unimaginable.

What do you call these groups of clauses?

2. Replace the underlined groups of words with an adverb:

a. We stopped when we saw the landmark.

b. Even though she wakes up early, she gets to school late.

What do you observe? What type of clause do you think this is?

In previous discussions, we learned that a subordinate clause is a clause that has subject and predicate, and forms part of a main clause or principal clause but does not make complete sense when it is on its own. For it to convey meaning, it must be attached to a main clause. There are three types of subordinate clauses based on the role they play in sentences. They are the noun/nominal clause, the adjective/relative clause and the adverbial clause. For this lesson, we are going to focus on the noun or nominal clause, the meaning (features/structure), how to identify them in sentences or paragraphs and use them in writing meaningful sentences.

Figure 3.4: Noun Clause image The Noun/Nominal Clause A noun clause is a group of words that plays the role of a noun in a sentence. Just like any other noun, the noun clause functions or acts as subjects, objects and complements in a sentence. It provides enough information that clarifies the main clause or makes it more precise. It is also called nominal clause. The noun clause usually begins with words such as that, who, whether, whoever, or whatever. Now, let us examine the picture below carefully and use the clue words in blue to write out the noun clauses in the sentences. We are doing this activity together so, pay attention.

Figure 3.5: Noun Clause image From the picture, the noun clauses in the sentences include:

1. Whoever arrives first…

2. Whether she likes it or not…

3. …what the manager decided.

4. …if they will attend the event

5. …what caused the strange noise?

6. …that everyone understands the instructions.

It is now your turn to perform Activity 3.1 on your own.

1. The noun clause is introduced by a subordinate conjunction such as that, who, which, whatever, whichever, why and how. Consider the examples below:

a. Whoever took my watch should return it.

b. Whichever decision you make will be accepted.

c. What you gifted me is deeply appreciated.

The underlined groups of words in the sentences are noun clauses, beginning with subordinate conjunctions ‘whoever, whichever’ and ‘what’ respectively. To be sure they are noun clauses, you can try replacing the groups of words with pronouns or nouns or noun phrases appropriate to the contexts. If you do this successfully and the sentences are still grammatically sound, then you will know for sure that they are noun/nominal clauses.

You can thus replace as follows:

a. Whoever took my watch should return it.

(They/she/he) should return it.

b. Whichever decision you make will be accepted.

(It) will be accepted.

c. What you gifted me is deeply appreciated.

(The watch/it) is deeply appreciated.

It is important to note that all the underlined noun clauses are functioning as subjects in the sentences. For instance:

Subject of the verb (or verb phrase ‘should return’)- grammatical role or function.

The activity that follows requires that you identify the noun clauses and state their grammatical functions in the sentence. You may pair with your friend or classmate to do it.

2. A noun clause can also begin with a noun/noun phrase followed by post modifiers as illustrated with the examples below.

a. (The watch that he gifted me) looks expensive.

b. The book (that they recommended) is intriguing.

c. The person (who is to chair the programme) has arrived.

All the underlined groups of words are noun clauses beginning with noun phrases that have been emboldened and followed by post modifiers in the brackets. Don’t forget! Noun clauses act as nouns or noun phrases or even pronouns in sentences.

3. A noun clause like any other clause has the subject and its predicate. Knowing this will help you differentiate the noun clause from a noun phrase.

For instance, let us examine the sentence below:

Whatever he does for a living remains unknown.

The noun clause is “Whatever he does for a living” We can divide this noun clause as follows:

“Whatever” ...subordinating conjunction “he” …subject “does for a living” …predicate That is, the noun clause has a subordinating conjunction (Whatever), subject “he” and with a corresponding predicate “does for a living”. Although the noun clause “Whatever he does for a living” has both subject and predicate, it is not a sentence because reading it alone does not express a complete thought. Wonderful! We are now ging to look at the structure of the noun clause.

The following features will help you understand the structure of the noun clauses. You are encouraged to study them carefully and reflect on how noun clauses are formed or the form they take.

1. That-Clause Structure: This is a noun clause that begins with ‘that’. For example:

a. I know that my parents won’t disappoint me

b. That he is honest makes people like him.

2. Wh-Clause Structure: This is the noun clause that begins with ‘wh’ words such as which, what, where, why and when. for example:

a. Why she left is unknown.

b. I don’t know how to lie.

3. If/Whether Clause Structure: This is a noun clause that begins with if or whether.

For example:

a. If they will come is a mystery.

b. They wondered whether they would travel to the resort.

Activity 3.5 Identifying Noun Clauses with the Words That Introduce Them

1. In groups of four, brainstorm on what noun clauses are and give examples.

2. Still in your group, discuss what subordinate clauses are.

3. Identify noun clauses in the following passage:

The Mysterious Note

One bright morning, Emily was walking up to her front door when she spotted a crumpled piece of paper lying on the ground. It seemed out of place. The note, written in a hurried scrawl, simply said, "What you discover next will change everything." Emily stared at the words, trying to make sense of them. She couldn't

figure out who had left it or what it meant, but she had a strong feeling that what the note was trying to tell her was important.

Later that day, while she was walking through the park, Emily overheard a conversation between two strangers. One of them said, "Whoever solves the mystery will be given the key to the city." Emily’s heart raced. She couldn’t stop wondering who would solve the mystery first. As the day wore on, Emily couldn’t shake the thought of the note. She realised that why the note had been left for her might be more significant than anything else. What was she meant to do with it?

Who was behind it all?

4. Open your internet browser or YouTube and search for videos on clauses. Pay close attention to what is being said in the video. This will further enhance your understanding of clauses.

Welcome, we will explore the varied world of noun clauses and their vital role in enhancing our communication skills. As we continue our journey into the realm of noun clauses, we will learn how to integrate them effectively into our sentences to express complex ideas clearly and coherently. Understanding noun clauses not only enriches our writing but also helps us articulate our thoughts more precisely in both spoken and written forms.

In addition to our grammatical focus, we will explore the art of paragraph development.

Coherence is essential in writing, and we will examine the key elements that contribute to a well-structured paragraph. You will learn how to connect your ideas seamlessly, ensuring that your writing flows logically from one point to the next. Finally, we will shift our attention to literature, specifically non-African poetry. Through this exploration, we will respond to and appreciate the diverse themes, styles, and emotions expressed in these poems. Engaging with poetry broadens our perspectives and deepens our understanding of different cultures and human experiences. Together, we shall enhance our language skills while cultivating a greater appreciation for the beauty of poetry. Let’s embark on an enriching learning experience!

Key Ideas

• A noun clause is a group of words that works like a noun.

• A noun clause can be the subject of a sentence, the object of a verb, the complement of a subject, the object of a preposition, or give more information about a noun. It replaces or explains a noun in a sentence.

• A paragraph is coherent when the ideas are connected and make sense together.

• We use pronouns (like he, she, it) to avoid repeating nouns, and linking words (like however, therefore, and in addition) to join ideas and help the reader follow along.

• Poetry appreciation refers to the understanding and enjoyment of poetry as an art.

Figure 4.1: Picture showing a noun clause A noun clause is just like a secret ingredient in a sentence. It may look like a regular group of words but it acts as a noun, helping sentences express more complex thoughts.

A noun clause also known as a nominal clause is a subordinate clause that functions as noun. It functions as subjects, objects, appositives and complements in a sentence.

Note, the clause should have a verb which is the important element. You can usually identify a noun clause because it starts with special words like:

1. Interrogatives: who, what, where, when, why, how

2. Whatever or if

3. That

4. Whoever, whichever Grammatical Functions of the Noun Clause (Where do they fit in sentences) _(Subject) A noun clause functions as subject of the verb or verb phrase in a sentence.

Examples

a. Whoever told you that story has not been entirely honest with you.

This sentence is about who has not been entirely honest. The part of the sentence that answers that is ‘Whoever told you that story’.

The underlined group of words is thus a noun clause functioning as the subject of the verb phrase ‘has not been’.

b. Where we met is unexpected. subject of the verb ‘is”.

c. Who sponsored my education is my secret. Subject of the verb ‘is’

d. How corruption can be eradicated has been a conundrum to many. Subject of the verb phrase ‘has been’

e. Whatever route you take will bring you to my location. Subject of the verb phrase ‘will bring’ Object A noun clause functions as object of a verb in a sentence. This means that the subordinate clause that receives the action of the verb is a noun clause.

Examples

a. He named the woman who has the best work ethic as best worker of the year.

To determine the object in the sentence above, simply ask ‘Who was named?’

and the answer will be ‘the woman who has the best work ethic. This makes the underlined group of words a noun clause functioning as object of the verb ‘named’.

b. They told me what I wanted to hear to win my trust. Object of the verb ‘told’.

c. Their story inspired what I captured in my documentary. Object of the verb ‘inspired’.

d. They bought whatever was on the list. Object of the verb 'bought’.

Complement A noun clause functions as complement of a verb. This is the subordinate clause that follows a linking verb such as to be, appear, seem and can.

Examples

a. She is who she says she is. Grammatical function: Complement of the verb ‘is’.

b. His success is what has alienated him from family. Complement of the verb ‘is’.

c. The job has become why they are time conscious. Complement of the verb phrase ‘has become’.

Appositive A noun clause functions as an appositive to nouns. This is the noun clause that follows a noun or noun phrase to explain, identify or rename it.

Examples

a. The news, that she has won a scholarship, shocked everyone.

b. Grammatical function: Appositive to the noun phrase ‘The news’

c. His philosophy in life, that everyone is equal, keeps him grounded. Appositive to the noun phrase ‘His philosophy in life’

d. Akua Donkor, the jovial woman who had presidential ambitions, has gone to glory. Appositive to the noun phrase ‘Akua Donkor’ Object of the preposition A noun clause also functions as object of the preposition. This is the noun clause that follows a preposition.

Examples

a. The misconception stems from what you read. Object of the preposition ‘from’

b. They’ve planned their next trip around when the children will be on vacation from school. Object of the preposition ‘around’

c. Unfortunately, the society does not listen to what children say. Object of the preposition ‘to’ Noun clauses help to add meaning to our sentences, whether it is acting as a subject, object or complement, they help us express complex ideas clearly.

Activity 4.1 Starter

Do you remember this starter activity from the previous section? It was fun, so let us repeat it!

1. Go to YouTube, search for any Highlife or Afrobeat song by your favourite Ghanaian artist(e) in English. Play the song and write down the lyrics.

2. With a friend or two, underline all the nouns and noun clauses in the lyrics.

Have fun by choreographing a dance move.

Activity 4.2 Identification of Noun Clauses as Subjects and Objects

1. Watch Ghana Television (GTV) News bulletin with your friends or family.

2. Keep a note pad or book handy to write as many sentences as you can as you watch or listen to the news.

3. Record the bulletin with a phone or any recorder to help you update your sentences after the bulletin has ended.

4. With the help of your friends, underline all the noun clauses in the sentences you have written.

5. Label all the noun clauses that tell you what the sentences are about as subjects and state their functions relative to the verbs or verb phrases.

Example:

a. What I said is provoking (Subject) Grammatical function: Subject of the verb ‘is’ Label all the noun clauses that suffer or receive the action of the verbs as objects and state their functions relative to the verbs or verb phrases.

b. They ate the food I left in the fridge.

Grammatical function: Object of the verb ‘ate’

Activity 4.3 Identification of Noun Clauses as Complements and Appositives Use the same sentences from ‘Activity 4.2’.

1. Label all the noun clauses that follows a linking verb as complements and write their functions relative to the linking verb.

Example: The book is what I expected it to be.

Grammatical function: Complement of the verb ‘is’

2. Label all the noun clauses that follow nouns or noun phrases and are separated by commas as appositives. Write their functions relative to those nouns or noun phrases.

Example: The theory, that man evolved from apes, is false. (appositive) Grammatical function: An appositive to ‘The theory’

Activity 4.4 Identification of Noun Clauses as Objects of Prepositions

1. Use the same sentences from Activity 4.2.

2. Label all the noun clauses that follow prepositions as objects and go ahead to write their grammatical functions relative to the prepositions.

For example: I apologise for what I said.

Grammatical function: Object of the preposition ‘for’

Grammatical structures are the rules and systems that govern the way sentences are formed in a language. In English Language, understanding these structures is crucial for effective communication, whether in writing or speaking. Grammatical structures also play a key role in understanding and interpreting texts. Here are some important features of these grammatical features:

• Establishing relationships: Grammatical structures help connect the different parts of the text - the words, phrases, clauses, figurative expressions in a given text.

This helps readers to join these parts together to make meaning.

• Conveying meaning: Grammatical structures carry the bits and pieces of the information that will eventually come together to make the text meaningful.

• Organising information: With the help of grammatical structures, the information in the text is in order, so that readers can follow though the ideas brought up in the passage.

• Signalling importance: Some grammatical structures provide hints about additional information. Subordinate clauses for instance can help us identify important information easily.

• Creating emphasis: These structures also help emphasise important points.

For instance, the passive voice and other structures can draw attention to certain concepts.

• Facilitating inference: These same structures assist us towards more accurate guesswork. Topics or ideas that are not stated directly in the text are often hidden in some of these grammatical structures. The presence of these structures provides clues which help readers to confirm their guesses and give additional information to the text.

• Enhancing coherence: The structures also help readers read smoothly through the text. Imagine that there are no rules on how to put your thoughts together for people to read and make meaning out of it. That would be chaotic because you may just be writing whatever comes to mind, whenever it does. Coherence is what makes it easier to read and understand texts.

• Supporting genre identification: Grammatical structures, being a set of rules, ensures that the text sticks to its conventional rules to make it coherent. This helps readers brace themselves for what to expect and how to approach them.

• Aiding text analysis: Understanding grammar enhances our ability to analyse the text, revealing the intentions, tone and target audience.

• Improving reading efficiency: A solid grasp of grammar enables readers to progress more quickly through the text, concentrating on the meaning rather than becoming bogged down by the writing style.

Mastering the interpretation of complex structures through grammatical analysis and context clues is essential for linguistic proficiency. By developing these skills, readers can enhance their comprehension and analytical abilities, leading to a deeper understanding of written communication.

Activity 5.2 Identifying Complex Grammatical Structures

1. In mixed-ability groups, identify the verbs and adjectives in the extract below.

In Ghana, the government has made significant strides in improving access to education. Initiatives such as the Free Senior High School policy have enabled more students to pursue secondary education. This policy not only reduces the financial burden on families by providing an increase in the number of qualified individuals entering the workforce, but it is also crucial for the country’s economic development.

2. Open your browser and search for a pre-recorded video of a short motivational video in which someone is speaking. You need a video in which someone speaks for the activity.

3. Discuss the significance of the parts of speech and the functions of the phrases you came across in the video.

Relative or Adjective Clause

A relative clause, also known as an adjective clause, is a dependent clause that qualifies a noun or pronoun. It provides additional information about the noun or pronoun, which helps to clarify or specify it. Relative clauses are typically introduced by relative pronouns such as:

1. who: refers to people

2. whom: refers to people (object form)

3. whose: indicates possession

4. which: refers to animals or things

5. that: can refer to people, animals, or things In some cases, the relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the object of the relative clause.

For example, "The car that I bought is red." now becomes "The car I bought is red."

Some examples of relative clauses include:

1. The child who won the race is back from her vacation.

2. The bus which took to Brekum just passed by my shop.

3. The woman whose picture is on the magazine is back from work.

4. The learner whom you gave my pen wants to speak with you.

5. The book that you gave me got stolen.

Structure of the Relative /Adjective Clause Grammatically, relative clauses must take a certain structure in order not to be mistaken for something else. The basic structure of a relative clause:

1. Relative pronoun: This introduces the clause

2. Verb: It is the action or state of being

3. Subject: This is simply the noun that the clause refers to

4. Object/Complement: Additional information that completes the meaning.

Relative clauses are essential for adding detail and clarity to sentences. Understanding how to use them correctly can help improve writing and communication skills. By knowing when to use defining versus non-defining clauses and how to correctly punctuate them, you can enhance the richness and accuracy of your language.

Types of Relative Clauses

1. Defining (Restrictive) Relative Clauses: These clauses provide essential information that defines the noun. Without this clause, the meaning of the sentence would change significantly. Usually, defining relative clauses do not use commas.

Examples:

a. “The book that I borrowed was fascinating.”

b. "The teacher who taught me maths is retiring."

2. Non-defining (Non-restrictive) Relative Clauses: These clauses provide extra information that can be omitted without altering the main meaning of the sentence.

They are usually set off by commas. Non-defining relative clauses are typically punctuated with commas. Commas here act as a parenthesis or brackets.

Example:

a. "My brother, who lives in New York, is visiting us."

b. "Paris, which is the capital of France, is known for its art."

c. "The movie we watched last night was thrilling."

Activity 5.3 Identification of Relative Clauses

1. Identify the relative pronouns in the text below:

The book that Sarah read last week was fascinating. It tells the story of a young girl who discovers a magical world. The characters whom she meets along the way help her on her journey. There is a wise old man whom she seeks for advice, and he shares secrets that change her life forever.

2. In pairs, identify and explain the relative clauses used in the text below and explain why they are relative clauses based on your judgement:

The book that I borrowed from the library is fascinating. It tells the story of a young girl who discovers a hidden talent for painting. The artist, whose work is featured in the book, inspires her to pursue her dreams. Many readers, who have reviewed the book online, agree that it is a must-read for anyone interested in art.

3. Write a short passage (6-8 sentences) that includes at least five relative clauses. Use a variety of relative pronouns.

Note: The passage can be about a favourite hobby, a memorable experience, or a person you admire. Show it your friend to review and critique.

Welcome, everyone! We will examine relative and adjective clauses in our Grammar lesson. As we explore how to identify and use these clauses effectively, we will see how they enhance our communication. By the end of this section, you should have a solid understanding of how to construct sentences with relative clauses and appreciate their role in crafting more vivid and engaging prose.

The writing lesson will focus on critically analysing and composing paragraphs on a given topic. Writing is not just about expressing our thoughts; it’s about shaping those thoughts into coherent and persuasive arguments. We will learn how to break down a topic, identify key points, and organise our ideas into well-structured paragraphs. Through this process, you will be developing the skills necessary to communicate your viewpoints effectively and convincingly. The literature lesson will explore a variety of themes present in poetry.

We will read a selection of poems, discuss the themes that emerge, and analyse how poets express these ideas through their unique styles and techniques. Let us uncover what the power of these themes reveals about our lives and society.

Key Ideas

• A body paragraph follows the introductory paragraph and develops the main idea presented in the thesis statement.

• A clause is a group of words that is considered a single unit within a larger sentence and generally contains a subject and a predicate.

• A paragraph is a distinct section of writing that typically consists of several sentences centred on a single main idea or topic.

• Relative clause is a clause that qualifies a noun/pronoun in a sentence.

• The introductory paragraph is the first paragraph of an essay or article.

• Themes are the central ideas or underlying messages in a work of literature, art, music, or other forms of creative expression.

(Grammatical Names and Grammatical Functions)

_(In) Section 5, we have explained what a relative/adjective clause is, we have also discussed the types of relative clauses, as well as several examples of these relative clauses.

Now, we are going to discuss the grammatical functions of relative/adjective clauses.

A relative clause is a dependent clause that provides additional information about a noun or pronoun in the main clause.

They are subordinate/independent clauses because they cannot give clear meaning when they are left alone. They are also called adjectival clauses because they are related to the noun in the main/independent clause since adjectives also have relationships with nouns in contexts.

Table 6.1: Types of relative clauses Types Definition Example Restrictive/ defining relative clause This type of clause provides essential information about a noun or noun phrase in a sentence. They give information about the person or thing we are talking about in a sentence.

The person whom I called today was my high school teacher.

The woman who lives across the street watches my cat when I go on vacation Non-restrictive/ non-defining relative clause This clause is also known as a non-essential clause. It provides additional information about a noun but it is not necessary the sentence.

This clause is separated by commas and can modify a single noun of noun phrase My mother, who is an excellent cook, is planning to open a restaurant.

I am planning to grow roses, which I find quite beautiful.

Functions of Relative/Adjectival Clause

The main function of a relative clause is to qualify the noun or pronoun in a sentence.

It does so by connecting the relative pronoun to the noun in the main clause.

Other general functions of the relative clause include:

₁. Describing a noun: It provides additional information about a noun, making its meaning clearer. Thus, it helps readers to connect the noun/pronoun that is being referred to in the sentence.

2. Identifying a specific noun: This helps distinguish which person or thing is being referred to, especially when there are multiple possibilities. It may be confusing to identify which noun/pronoun is being talked about when dealing with more than one noun/pronoun in the sentence.

3. Establishing relationships: Relative clauses show connections between people, places, things, or ideas. They also aid in making relationships/connections. This helps the audience to know how related ideas are for examination of the message under consideration.

4. Adding emphasis or contrast: Relative clauses highlight a particular aspect or contrast with something else. They place emphasis on particular ideas for readers to identify what is being spoken about. It could be drawing similarities or making a contrast between ideas or something.

5. Creating vivid imagery: they help conjure up a more detailed picture in the reader's or listener's mind. With the introduction of an adjectival clause, a vivid picture is created in the audience’s mind. This mental picture helps to process the message to insight into the message.

Activity 6.1 Identification of Relative Pronouns

With four of your classmates, study the two-paragraph letter below and identify the relative pronouns that are used:

Dear Manager,

I am writing to complain about the computer which I purchased from your store on 3rd November 2024. The sales assistant who served me told me that the computer was in perfect condition. Unfortunately, when I arrived home and tried to use it, I realised that the computer was not working. I called your store to complain but the sales assistant said that there was no reason why the computer shouldn’t be working as it was in excellent condition.

On Friday, I visited your where I asked for a refund. However, the very rude manager refused to give me a refund. I demand a full refund and an apology for your staff’s unprofessional behaviour.

Activity 6.2 Creating relative clauses

1. With three of your friends, use the relative pronoun cards to create sentences containing relative clauses.

2. Individually, develop a short paragraph on a theme of your choice and share with your group members for constructive criticism.

3. In groups, play-pretend scenes of a market place, the banking hall, classroom or dining hall and engage in conversations that will pertain to these places using clauses.

4. Still in your groups, discuss and share with examples how adjectival or relative clauses can be used to convey meaning.

We continue our lessons on types of subordinate clauses as we will study adverbial clause today. The lesson is designed to help you explain what adverbial clause is with examples, identify types of adverbial clauses and examine the functions of adverbial clauses in context.

Figure 7.4: Adverbial clause Image An adverbial clause is a group of words that performs the functions of adverbs in a sentence and contains a subject and verb (predicate). This means that like adverbs, an adverbial clause modifies a verb, an adjective or adverb in a sentence. Adverbial clauses answer the questions “when?”, “where?”, “why?”, “how?”, “how often” and “to what extent?”. By answering these questions, they provide information about time, place, manner, frequency, degree and reason or purpose of an action that occurs in a sentence. An adverbial clause can be at the beginning or in the middle or at the end of a sentence. Adverbial clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as after, before, because and since. Examples of subordinating conjunctions that introduce an adverbial clause in a sentence are shown below.

After, although, as, as-as, because, before, even though, if, once, in case, only if, since, so that, than, though, until, till, when, whenever, where, whereas, while, why, unless Let us examine the picture below carefully to reflect on our discussions so far. Read the examples of adverbial clauses provided after the picture illustration.

Figure 7.5: An image defining and exemplifying adverbial clause Examples of Adverbial Clauses Study the adverbial clauses underlined in the following sentences and discuss them with your friend or classmate.

a. We cannot go on holiday because our parents don’t have enough money.

b. Musah was so tired that he couldn’t study.

c. That is the school where we held the games.

d. Until I saw the evidence, I didn’t believe they stole the money.

e. The boys ate as if they had been starving for years.

You can now identify adverbs in sentences.

Types of Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses give information about the verb in relation to time, manner, place, condition, concession and reason, within a particular sentence. By extension, the type of adverbial clause is defined by the kind of information it provides about the verb.

This means that adverbial clauses can be classified as adverbial clause of time, place, manner, concession, condition and reason. Let’s observe the picture below to help us identify the types of adverbial clauses in sentences.

Figure 7.6: An image on examples of adverbial clause Follow the examples in Table 7.2 to learn more about the types of adverbial clauses.

Table 7.2: Types of adverbial clauses Types of Adverbial Clause Role in relation to the verb Examples in sentences Time Gives information about when an action occurs She will go to the farm after the rain has subsided.

Until you eat your dinner, you cannot go out.

Place Gives information about where an action occurs The children can go anywhere they want.

The drone will work where the signal is stable.

Manner Gives information about how an action occurs They completed the task exactly as they were told.

The dress was designed precisely as they requested.

Condition Indicates the situation under which an action will happen I’ll take my umbrella just in case it rains.

If the man comes early, he will be employed.

Concession Gives information that contrast the action Although it rained, I could not plan my maize.

The exam was written even though it was a holiday.

Reason Gives information about why an action occurs The team will not play again because they lost.

Since I do not have money, I cannot go to work today The Structure and Functions of Adverbial Clause The adverbial clause is made up of a subordinator, a subject and a predicate. The subordinator is usually a conjunction which begins the structure of an adverbial clause.

We have mentioned a list of them at the beginning of this lesson. For a quick reminder, let us consider some examples - as, although, before, because, if, since, unless, so that, until, when, where, how and why.

The other elements mentioned, the subject and the predicate are important features of the adverbial clause. The subject is noun or pronoun that something is said about in the structure of the adverbial clause whereas the predicate refers to the verb and its accompanying elements. Let us consider the illustration below to understand the structure of adverbial clause using the sentence below.

Although the team was under pressure, they won the game.

The adverbial clause in the sentence is “Although the team was under pressure”, which can be divided as follows:

An adverbial clause by function serves as a modifier. It mostly modifies or describes the verb in the main or principal clause. Adverbial clauses can also modify adjectives and another adverb in the main clause of a sentence. Let’s now look at examples of the grammatical functions of adverbial clauses. You are encouraged to follow the illustrations carefully.

Examples of Adverbial Clauses Modifying Verbs

a. I will take my umbrella just in case it rains.

Grammatical name: Adverbial clause Grammatical function: It modifies the verb or verb phrase “will take”.

b. Unless you are eighteen years old, you cannot vote in Ghana.

Grammatical name: Adverbial clause Grammatical function: It modifies the verb phrase “cannot vote”.

Examples of Adverbial Clauses Modifying Adjectives

a. The food was sumptuously delicious because it was homemade.

Adverbial clause: “because it was homemade” Function: It modifies the adjective “delicious” in the main clause.

b. The boys were remarkably quiet when they were asked to be.

Adverbial clause: “when they were asked to be.

Function: It modifies the adjective “quiet”.

Examples of Adverbial Clauses Modifying Another Adverb

a. The man drove very carefully because he knew there were many potholes.

Adverbial clause: “because he knew there were many potholes”.

Function: It modifies the adverb “carefully”.

b. They spoke very loudly as if they wanted everyone to hear them.

Adverbial clause: “as if they wanted everyone to hear them.

Function: It modifies the adverb “loudly”.

Activity 7.4 Creating Adverbial Clauses

1. Match the main clauses to the most appropriate adverbial clauses in the table to make complete sentences indicating the types of adverbial clause.

2. Form two sentences of each of the types of adverbial clauses.

3. Identify the adverbial clauses in the following sentences and state their types as well as their grammatical functions.

a. When the examination results are ready, it will be announced.

b. The authorities installed streetlights where visibility was needed.

c. Though the software was new, it performed badly under pressure.

d. The weather was surprisingly pleasant after the storm passed.

e. The boys ate quickly since they were hungry.

Welcome to another edition of adverbial clause, narrative writing and poetry! Get ready to have an engaging series of lessons that will enhance your skills in grammar, writing, and literature. We will begin with Grammar, where you will learn how to use adverbial clauses effectively in sentences. This skill will enable you to add complexity and clarity to your communication, making your writing and speaking more impactful.

Next, we will focus on crafting short stories that use sensory language. You will explore the power of imagery to create vivid pictures for your readers, bringing experiences, events, settings, and characters to life through your words. Finally, in our Literature lesson, we will explore common themes present in various texts. By examining these themes, you will gain a deeper understanding of the messages conveyed and how they resonate across different stories. Let's discover the richness of language and storytelling together.

Key Ideas

• An adverbial clause of frequency focuses on how often an action happens while an adverbial clause of condition explains the potential outcome of the main action.

• An adverbial clause of purpose tells why an action is done, while an adverbial clause of reason provides the reason behind the action while an adverbial clause of result shows the effect or result of the action.

• A narrative is a story or account of events, and narrative writing tells or describes an event or situation.

• A theme in poetry is the central idea or message that the poet explores through imagery, symbolism, and emotion. Some themes in poetry include love, death, nature, freedom, hope, suffering, and identity.

We began a discussion on the adverbial clause in the previous section. We started by looking at how to identify adverbial clauses and proceeded to look at some of the types of the adverbial clause. Here, we shall continue our discussion on the types and their grammatical functions.

Other Types of Adverbial Clause

₁. Adverbial Clause of Frequency It is an adverbial clause that describes how often an action occurs. It usually begins with ‘every time’ and ‘however’.

Examples

a. Every time it rains, the road to my house becomes undrivable.

The underlined group of words is an adverbial clause indicating how often the road is undrivable. Hence, the grammatical name of ‘every time it rains’ is adverbial clause of frequency.

The grammatical function is related to how often the road becomes undrivable. Since ‘undrivable’ is an adjective, the grammatical function is stated as ‘it modifies the adjective ‘undrivable’.

b. Whenever my grandparents visit, they bring some organic produce from the village.

Grammatical name: Adverbial clause (of frequency) Grammatical function: modifies the verb ‘bring’

c. The students must exit the house, whenever the alarm sounds.

Grammatical name: adverbial clause (of frequency) Grammatical function: modifies the verb phrase ‘must exit’

2. Adverbial Clause of Concession

This adverbial clause gives information of contrast about an action. For example:

The engineers completed the project although the budget was limited. ‘Although the budget was limited’ gives information that contrasts with the action of completing the project. There is often an acknowledgement that there has been a problem – ‘a point conceded’.

Examples

a. Management decided to proceed even if the data were missing.

b. While the prototype was defective, it still met basic requirements.

c. Though the software was new, it performed very well under pressure.

3. Adverbial Clause of Reason

This adverbial clause gives information about why an action occurs. It begins with subordinators such as because, since, given that, as long as, considering that and as. For example: The fire alarm went off because someone triggered it. ‘Because someone triggered it’ gives the reason for the fire alarm going off.

Examples

a. The test was delayed because the equipment needed calibration.

b. The backup system activated because the primary system failed.

c. The project was extended because of unforeseen issues arose during construction.

4. Adverbial Clause of Purpose

It is an adverbial clause that indicates the intent or goal of the action of the main clause. It answers the question ‘for what purpose’ and is usually introduced by in order that, provided that and so that.

Examples

a. We always lock the main door so that nobody breaks in.

The intent or goal of locking the door is so nobody breaks in. This makes the underlined group of words an adverbial clause of purpose.

Since the adverbial clause gives reason behind the action of locking, its grammatical function can be stated thus:

It modifies the verb ‘lock’.

b. My parents work multiple jobs so that they can give us a decent life.

Grammatical function: modifies the verb ‘work’

c. We have provided enough chairs so that everyone could be seated.

Grammatical function: modifies the adjective ‘enough’

5. Adverbial Clause of Result

This is an adverbial clause that shows the outcome of the action in the main clause.

It is introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as ‘so, so that, such that’, and ‘to the extent’.

Examples

a. The fish were so abundant that the fishermen’s boats were filled.

The underlined group of words indicates the outcome of abundant fish, making ‘that the fishermen’s boats were filled’ an adverbial clause of result. Grammatical function will be stated thus:

It modifies the adjective ‘abundant’

b. The soil is so fertile that anything I put into the ground does well.

Grammatical function: modifies the adjective ‘fertile’

c. The farmer irrigated the land so thoroughly that the crops were able to withstand the drought.

Activity 8.1 Identification of Adverbial Clauses in Songs

Stream the following songs:

1. ‘Wish me well’ by Kuami Eugene

2. ‘Adonai’ by Sarkodie

3. ‘Nothing I get’ by Fameye

4. ‘Odo’ by Kidi

5. Pay attention to the following lines of the songs. Although written in pidgin, you will find it useful to understanding adverbial clauses. Underline some of the adverbs in the lyrics.

For example: ‘if you wish me well, I go wish you well’ (Kuami Eugene)

Activity 8.2 Identification of Adverbial Clauses of Frequency and Result Read the paragraph below.

Unemployment rates in Ghana remain high whenever economic growth slows down. Every time graduates enter the job market, they face intense competition, and this leads to discouragement. As often as the government implements initiatives, they seem to have limited impact, so the problem persists. To achieve lasting results, policy makers must ensure that solutions are tailored to specific needs, so that effective implementation can occur. Whenever training programmes are provided, such as those by the Ghana Employers Association, they yield increased job placements. Consequently, these programmes have become crucial in reducing unemployment rates.

1. Label the adverbial clause that shows how often an action occurs as an adverbial clause of frequency.

2. Label the adverbial clause that shows the outcome of an action as an adverbial clause of result.

3. State their grammatical functions relative to the verbs, adjectives or adverbs they modify.

4. Share your work with your peers.

5. Have conversations with your friends using adverbial clause of result and frequency. Intentionally use the adverbial clauses of result and frequency.

Activity 8.3 Identification of Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Reason Read the paragraph below.

Unemployment rates in Ghana remain high because many youths lack employable skills. Since the country’s economy is largely dependent on agriculture, jobs in other sectors are scarce. As a result, graduates often struggle to find employment. In order that this issue be addressed, the government has implemented programmes to provide vocational training. Because these programmes focus on practical skills, they enable youths to become entrepreneurs. Consequently, many young people have started their own businesses, creating jobs for others. To further ensure that unemployment is reduced, policy makers must prioritise education and infrastructure development. Similarly, since technology plays a critical role in modern economies, investing in digital literacy will enhance employability.

Therefore, initiatives like coding ‘boot camps’ and online courses are essential.

1. Label the adverbial clause that indicates the intent of an action as adverbial clause of purpose.

2. Label the adverbial clause that describes why an action occurs as adverbial clause of reason.

3. State their grammatical functions relative to the verbs, adjectives or adverbs they modify.

4. Share your work with your peers.

5. Have conversations with your peers while deliberately using adverbial clauses of purpose and reason.

6. Point out the difference between the two types.

Figure 9.2: An image explaining SVA with examples Words, phrases and/or clauses come together to form sentences. In English grammar, there must be harmony amongst these units in a sentence. This means that a subject and a verb must agree in number, person and gender. Pronouns must also agree with their antecedents. It is this harmony or agreement between grammatical units that is called concord or simply subject-verb agreement.

Rules of Concord

₁. A singular subject moves with a singular verb. Words that refer to one thing or person are singular in number. Such singular words as subjects require singular verbs. For example, ‘woman’, ‘house’, ‘orange’, ‘baby’ and ‘authority’ are singular nouns and so when used as subjects in sentences, they must take singular verbs.

Examples in sentences

a. That woman has been standing there for a while now.

b. My house is a home.

c. The orange in the fridge is rotten.

d. The baby cries all the time.

e. The school authority was responsible for the change in their behaviour.

All the singular subjects have been emboldened while the singular verbs have been underlined.

2. A plural subject takes a plural verb. When a subject refers to more than one thing or person, it is plural and will require a plural verb to agree with concord rules.

Plural subjects have been used with plural verbs in the sentences below:

a. The women walk to the well every day.

b. The houses in my neighbourhood are magnificent.

c. Oranges are a good source of vitamin C.

d. The boy and his friends go to the park every weekend.

e. Their families and friends are supportive of their decision.

3. When the compound subject refers to a title of a work of art, a name of an organisation or a dish and is seen as a unit, a singular verb is used.

For example:

a. Kenkey and fried fish is my favourite dish.

b. Hibiscus tea and meat pie is a healthy snack.

c. Romeo and Juliet is a drama written by William Shakespeare.

d. The International Red Cross and Red Crescent is an international organisation that provides relief to improve the lives of vulnerable people.

4. Expressions referring to amounts of money, time, measurement, weight, fractions or volume are treated as singular and so require singular verbs.

For example:

a. Hundred cedis is an outrageous price for a small basket of cocoyam.

b. Ninety-nine kilograms is too high a weight for your height.

c. A thirty-minutes run a day is enough to keep fit.

5. Nevertheless, when the individual part of an amount is considered rather than the unit, it is treated as plural and so requires a plural verb.

For example:

a. Three hundred cedis notes have been put in your bag for stationery.

b. Two twenty-five kilograms of rice have been delivered yesterday. (Twenty- five kilograms has been considered in separate unit of two)

6. Sixty-six years have passed since Ghana gained independence. (each year is considered separately)

Activity 9.6 The General Concept of Concord (Singular/Plural Subjects)

1. In speech or sentences, who is the subject?

2. Why is your choice of answer correct? Prove this with an example.

3. Now form a mixed-ability group of four and briefly share your responses with your friends.

4. Still in your groups, each of you should form at least three sentences and mention which of the rules of concord each sentence follows. If a friend is in need of assistance and you can offer it to make him/her understand, offer it gladly.

Let us play a simple game Instruction: Cut papers into squares and group them into two sets. The number of papers in each set must be equal. On the first set, write down nouns or noun phrases or pronouns (both singular and plural). On the other set of papers, write down as many verbs as possible (both singular and plural). The verbs must be in their present simple forms. Each paper must have just one verb on it.

Activity: On a table, each learner should be given limited amount of time (e.g. thirty seconds, depending on the number of pairs the group was able to come up with) to put the appropriate verbs by the nouns or noun phrases.

The group should decide how many marks each correct pairing fetches and award the marks accordingly. A learner must say each pair aloud after putting them together.

e.g..

.,

Here, we will explore the intricacies of language and expression. In our Grammar segment, we shall analyse the critical relationship between subjects and verbs in everyday communication, exploring how their appropriate use can enhance clarity and understanding in our interactions. Next, our writing focus will challenge you to craft a persuasive text that will not only state and defend a specific position but also anticipate and address potential objections. This skill is essential for effective argument development and will prepare you for real-world discussions. Lastly, in our Literature component, we will immerse ourselves in the world of imagery, examining how expressions and figurative language enrich texts and evoke emotions. By the end of this exploration, you would have sharpened your grammatical precision, your persuasive writing skills, and your appreciation of the power of imagery in literature.

Let us embark on this next exciting journey of language exploration together.

Key Ideas

• Antecedent is a word/noun or phrase that comes before a pronoun. It is used to avoid repetition.

• Concord is the agreement that exits between grammatical units, generally between the subject (s) and the verb.

• Imagery in poetry and drama is the use of descriptive languages that appeals to the senses, helping to create vivid mental pictures and evoke emotions in the audience.

• A speech is a spoken or written message that is delivered or conveyed to an audience on a subject.

• Formal speech is delivered in formal situations or gatherings.

• Informal Speech is delivered in an unplanned manner to an audience.

In Section Nine, we began discussion about ‘concord’. We realised that concord is the unity that exits generally between subjects and verbs in sentences. We proceeded to discuss some of the rules that govern the agreements between subjects and verbs. In this section, we shall continue to look at the rules so you can understand how the language is governed. This will help you to form sound grammatical expressions. Let us start the discussion on the rules of concord.

Rules of Concord

₁. There must be agreement between pronouns and their antecedents. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number (whether singular or plural), in person (whether 1st, 2nd or 3rd Person) or in gender (whether feminine, masculine or non-human).

For example:

Agreement in Number

a. The learners said they would submit their project the following day.

‘The learners’ is plural in number so the plural pronoun ‘they’ is used to agree to concord rules.

b. The children were told to bring the broken-down table. It was under the staircase.

‘It’ is singular referring to the singular antecedent noun, ‘table’.

Agreement in Person

a. You should remember to present your project work tomorrow. – 2nd person The pronoun ‘your’ is in the second person to agree with its second person antecedent ‘You’.

b. The learners will be told what to do before they begin the project. – 3rd person agreement ‘they’ is in the third person pronoun agreeing with the antecedent ‘learners’, also a third person.

Agreement in Gender

a. Mansa said she won’t be pressured into decision-making.

‘Mansa’ is a feminine noun so a feminine pronoun ‘she’ has been selected in with concord rules.

b. Sedem brought his laptop to school because he has a power-point presentation to make.

A masculine pronoun ‘he’ has been used to agree with the masculine antecedent ‘Sedem’.

c. I kept the rest of the milk in the fridge, but it spilt while my child was cleaning it.

‘it’ is a neuter pronoun to refer to the antecedent ‘milk’ and ‘fridge’ respectively Let us have fun as we do Activity 10.1!

2. When an intervening phrase (group of words, like prepositional phrase, adjectival or adverbial) separates the subject from the verb, the verb will agree with the headword.

For example, in:

In the sentence above, there are two nouns – ‘The woman’ and 'the children’ – which are likely to confuse you. Don’t be confused! Take a closer look at the sentence again.

You will realise that the sentence is about ‘The woman’ (singular subject) not ‘the children’ (plural noun). Simply, the sentence would have otherwise been:

Note that the woman is not alone but with her children. The woman thus, is the headword of the noun phrase followed by an intervening phrase (prepositional phrase) – ‘together with her children’. Since ‘woman’ is singular, it will need a singular verb ‘is’ and not a plural one to agree with ‘children’ because the latter is not the subject of the noun group.

Other examples

a. One tablet for three or five learners is inadequate.

(singular subject with a singular verb)

b. The players as well as the coach have received their bonuses.

(plural subject with a plural verb)

c. Speeding in urban areas endangers the lives of pedestrians and drivers.

(singular headword with a singular verb) Let us explore Activity 10.2 for a deeper understanding!

3. When two subjects are joined by ‘neither…nor’ or ‘either…or’, the verb will agree with the subject closer to it. For example:

a. Neither your aunties nor father has given you permission to go out with your friends.

b. Either Benjamin or Perfect wins the scholarship for best student.

c. Neither the constituents nor the member of parliament agrees on the policy.

(The emboldened are singular subjects agreeing with the verbs (singular) closer to them.)

d. Either the linguist or the chiefs were invited to the grand opening of the mall.

Go ahead and unlock Activities 10.3 and 10.4!

4. Indefinite pronouns such as everyone, everybody, each, either, neither nobody, somebody, anybody, anyone, someone and no one are treated as singular and generally take singular verbs. For example:

a. Nobody is allowed in the staff common room after 9pm.

b. Someone has been tampering with my gadget.

c. No one is ignorant of the law.

d. Everyone is invited to the grand launch of my latest book.

Other indefinite pronouns such as several, many, few and both are treated as plural.

For example:

a. Many of the people have become aware of what’s happening around them.

b. Others are oblivious of the socio-economic issues in the country.

c. Both candidates are formidable.

d. Several media houses were ready to cover the programme.

Notwithstanding, there are indefinite pronouns such as some, none, all, any and most whose singularity or plurality can only be determined from context.

For example:

a. Some of the money has been given to charity. – singular

b. Some of the tickets were sold to raise money for charity. – plural

c. Most of the cake has gone bad. – singular

d. Most of the learners are attending the workshop. – plural

e. None of the information given is verifiable. – singular

f. None of the friends were present at the workshop. – plural

g. All the money is needed for charity. – singular

h. All the laptops were donated to the school. – plural

Activity 10.1 Concord agreement with verbs and subjects Do you remember this nursery rhyme? Let us sing it and pay attention to the subjects and the verbs. Here is the rhyme:

I have one head I have two eyes I have two ears One nose, one mouth Two hands, two legs One body, one neck

1. Use any of the body parts – one head, two eyes, two ears, two hands, two legs, one nose, one mouth, one body and one neck – to form sentences. Use them as subjects and choose verbs to agree with them correctly.

2. What concord rule does your sentence conform with?

Activity 10.2 Concord and intervening phrases

1. Add information to the following noun phrase cards. Whatever words you add should follow the noun phrase.

2. Number them as a, b, c, and d. The first one has been done as a sample:

a. The mug in the cabinet

b. The judges ....

c. The computers ...

d. A book ....

3. Use the noun phrases numbered a, b, c, and d to form sentences. Use them as subjects. For example: The mug is pricey.

4. Use the noun phrases with the additional information to form sentences as done below:

The mug in the cabinet is pricey.

5. What informs your choice of singular or plural verbs for the subjects? Share your observations with your peers.

Activity 10.3 ‘Neither…nor’ and Concord

1. Join these words using neither/nor:

a. My uncle, aunties

b. Eraser, pencils

c. Guests, Chairman The first one has been done for you. Number them as d, e, and f:

d. Neither my uncle nor aunties ....

2. Use d, e, and f as subjects in sentences as done below:

d. Neither my uncle nor aunties were present at my graduation.

3. What informs your choice of singular or plural verbs for the subjects? Try to write a rule out of it.

Activity 10.4 ‘Either…or’ and Concord

1. Join these words using ‘either/or’:

a. Siblings, friend

b. Textbooks, a uniform

c. Phones, computers The first one has been done for you. Number them as d, e, and f:

d. Either my siblings or friend ....

2. Use d, e, and f to form sentences as has been done below:

d. Either my siblings or friend is here.

3. What informs your choice of singular or plural verbs for the subjects. Try to write a rule from your observation. Share your ideas with friends.

Activity 10.5 Indefinite pronouns and concord

1. a. Use nobody, someone and everybody in sentences.

b. What do you observe about the subject and verb?

2. a. Use none, some and most to form pairs of sentences, one singular and the other plural as has been done below:

b. What do you observe about the verb choices you have made?

3. Try to write a rule about each of them.

4. Share your observations with your friend. It seems complicated, but it makes sense when you think about it.

You are welcome to the lesson on grammar. In our previous grammar lesson, we discussed on Subject-Verb Agreement, we looked at the definition and some rules governing Subject-Verb Agreement. In this lesson, we are going to look at some tips to master Subject-Verb Agreement along with common errors that we make in using Subject-Verb Agreement and the use of modals and helping verbs in subject-verb agreement. This is to serve as a re-enforcement of the previous lessons. If you still have a challenge with Subject-verb agreement after this lesson, let your teacher/facilitator know where you still struggle.

Figure 11.7: Pictures showing the focal area Mastering subject-verb agreement is essential for clear and effective communication in English. We are going to discuss a few tips to master Subject-verb agreement.

Tips to Master Subject-Verb Agreement

₁. Understand the Basics: Familiarise yourself with the fundamental rules of subject- verb agreement. Singular subjects take singular verbs. Plural subjects take plural verbs.

2. Identify the Subject Carefully: Always identify the true subject of the sentence, especially in complex sentences. Look for the main subject, not any intervening phrases.

3. Watch Out for Indefinite Pronouns: Indefinite pronouns like everyone, someone, each and nobody are singular and require singular verbs.

4. Practise with Compound Subjects: Know how to handle compound subjects joined by and or or/nor. “And” typically requires a plural verb. “Or/Nor” takes a verb that agrees with the nearest subject- the rule of proximity.

5. Pay Attention to Collective Nouns: Collective nouns can be tricky. Decide if the collective noun is acting as a single unit or plural. Collective nouns can take singular verb or plural verb depending on the context or situation used.

6. Use Context Clues: Context can help determine the correct verb form.

7. Practise Regularly: Engage in exercises and quizzes that focus on subject-verb agreement. This will help reinforce the rules. Use online resources, grammar books, or worksheets.

8. Get Feedback: If possible, ask someone to review your writing or practice exercises.

Feedback can help you identify areas for improvement.

9. Use Writing Tools: Consider using grammar-checking tools that highlight subject- verb agreement issues. Tools like Grammarly can provide insights and corrections.

Mastering subject-verb agreement takes practice and attention to detail. By following these tips and regularly engaging with the material and online worksheets on subject- verb agreement, you can enhance your understanding and application of this essential grammar rule. Perform the activity that follows to help you understand the tips or rules of subject-verb agreement. Good luck!

Activity 11.10 Identification of Subject Verb Agreement Rules from Videos Click the links below to watch the videos on Subject-Verb Agreement and identify some of the rules from them. Discuss with your friends or classmates the rules identified in the video.

https://youtu.be/KI6jX40WM3w?si=h5x8SwoBC1Y0Ntxd https://youtu.be/LfJPA8GwTdk?si=ghH4LGK01lR28cW3 You are really doing well, my good friend!

Figure 11.8: Picture showing subject-verb agreement Some Common Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement Subject-verb agreement is a fundamental aspect of English grammar, ensuring that subjects and verbs in a sentence match in number, singular or plural. Here are some common errors associated with subject-verb agreement, along with explanations and examples.

1. Ignoring the Proximity of the Subject and Verb Error: The verb may agree with a noun close to it rather than the true subject.

Example:

Error: The team of researchers are presenting their findings.

Correction: The team

2. Compound Subjects

Error: When two subjects are joined by and, they typically take a plural verb;

however, some compound subjects can be singular.

Example:

Error: Rice and stew are my favourite meal.

Correction: Rice and stew is my favourite.

3. Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns e.g., everyone, someone, each are often mistakenly treated as plural.

Example:

Error: Everybody are invited to the party.

Correction: Everybody is invited to the party.

4. Collective Nouns

Collective nouns e.g., team, group, committee can be tricky; they may take a singular or plural verb depending on whether the group acts as a single unit or as individuals.

Example:

Error: The jury were divided in their decision.

Correction: The jury was divided in their decision. (“jury” acting as a single unit).

5. Titles of Works

Error: Titles of books, movies, etc., are often treated as plural.

Example:

Error: The Chronicles of Narnia are a great series.

Correction: The Chronicles of Narnia is a great series.

6. Amounts and Quantities

Nouns that are Plural in Form but Singular in Meaning Error: Some nouns are plural in form but take a singular verb.

Example:

Error: The news are good.

Correction: The news is good.

Understanding subject-verb agreement is crucial for clear and grammatically correct writing and speaking. By being aware of these common errors, writers can enhance their language skills and improve their communication. Regular practice and careful proofreading can help avoid these pitfalls.

Now, you are encouraged to perform Activity 11.11.

Activity 11.11 Correcting Some Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement

Identify the errors in the following sentences and correct them. Build a portfolio of the errors and corrections made and paste in your class.

1. Our staff are meeting this afternoon.

2. Neither the ministers nor the president are attending the Odwira festival.

3. A number of footballers in Africa retires early.

4. Everybody have a role to play in nation building.

Modal and Primary Auxiliary Verbs in Relation to

Subject-Verb Agreement

Other important areas we will look at under subject-verb agreement are modal and primary auxiliary or helping verbs. These verbs are mostly used together with the main verbs. We are going to examine how they play a role in subject-verb agreement.

1. Understanding Modals and Primary Helping Verbs:

Primary Auxiliary Verbs: These verbs are used alongside the main verb to form different tenses, moods, or voices. Common primary helping verbs include is, are, was, were, has, have, and do.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs: These are a type of helping verb that expresses necessity, possibility, permission, timing or ability. Common modals include can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would.

2. Subject-Verb Agreement with Primary Helping Verbs:

Helping verbs must agree with the subject in number and person.

Examples Singular: She is going to the store. Singular subject ‘She’ with singular helping verb ‘is’.

Plural: They are going to the store. Plural subject They with plural helping verb ‘are’.

3. Modals and Subject-Verb Agreement:

Modals do not change form based on the subject; they remain the same regardless of whether the subject is singular or plural.

Examples He can swim. Singular subject He, with modal can.

They can swim. Plural subject They, with the same modal can

4. Using Modals for Future Forms:

In future constructions, modals will still follow the subject-verb agreement rules.

Examples She will join us. singular subject.

They will join us. plural subject

5. Negation with Primary Helping Verbs:

When negating sentences with helping verbs, ensure the subject and verb agree in number.

Examples:

He does not like coffee. Singular subject with singular helping verb does.

They do not like coffee. Plural subject with plural helping verb do.

6. Expressing Ability, Permission, and Obligation: When using modals to express ability, permission, or obligation, remember that they do not change form based on the subject.

Examples:

He should finish his homework. Singular They should finish their homework. Plural All too soon, we have come to the end of our grammar lesson on subject-verb agreement.

As usual, before we draw the curtain down, perform Activity 11.12.

Activity 11.12 Identifying and Correcting Errors in a Passage

1. Read the paragraph below and identify the subject-verb agreement errors

2. Correct them appropriately.

3. Make a presentation to your friends on this activity. Enjoy this moment!

Paragraph Working in a group are very amazing! You meets and interact with different kinds of learners. Though we comes from diverse backgrounds, we are always together, sharing ideas without any intimidation. The interactions helps build long-standing relationships. The beautiful thing are that whether you is right or another person are, does not matter as far as sharing opinions is concerned. We always unlearns to learn. Everybody enjoy equal opportunity. This bring about sense of belongingness and helps learners take charge of their own learning.

Welcome to another interesting lessons, where we will explore three interconnected aspects of language and literature. First, we will consider voice identification, distinguishing between active and passive voice. Understanding these voices enhances clarity and impacts on our writing. Next, we’ll shift our focus to speech writing, honing our skills in crafting compelling argumentative and persuasive pieces. These techniques will empower you to express your ideas effectively and to influence your audience. Finally, we will immerse ourselves in the world of literature, examining the use of imagery in narratives, dramas, and poems. By analysing how authors create vivid pictures with words, we will deepen our appreciation for the art of storytelling.

Together, these topics will enrich your understanding of language and enhance your writing and analytical skills. Let’s embark on this journey of exploration and creativity!

Key Ideas

• Active voice is when the verb form shows that the subject has performed an action in a sentence while Passive voice is when the verb form expresses that an action has been received by or done to the subject.

• Argumentative essay is a type of writing that presents a position on a topic and uses evidence to convince the reader/audience to accept one’s viewpoint while Persuasive writing is writing with the goal of convincing readers to change their opinion on the topic being discussed.

• Grammatical subject is the noun/pronoun/noun phrase that precedes the verb, determines the verb agreement and performs grammatical functions. It specifies the subject based on position of the noun or pronoun.

• Imagery is the use of descriptive language that appeals to the senses, helping readers to create a vivid mental picture. It deals with sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell.

• Notional subject is the noun/pronoun/noun phrase that performs the action of a verb, whether at the grammatical subject position or not. In other words, notional subject is determined by meaning.

• Speech writing is preparing a communication you plan to deliver orally to an audience.

• Voice is the form of verb that shows whether a person or thing has performed an action, or something has been done to a person or thing.

In grammar, voice is the form of a verb that specifies whether the subject has performed an action, or something has been done to the subject. In other words, voice describes the relationship between the subject and the action of the verb. There are two types of voice: the active and the passive voice.

Figure 12.1: An image on active and passive voice Active Voice A verb is said to be in the active voice when the subject performs the action of the verb.

For example:

a. My mother bought a watch.

b. My father prepared a sumptuous meal.

c. They will dance Kpalongo.

d. The bus hits the hawker.

In all the sentences above, we can see that all the subjects: my mother, my father, they, the bus, are the subject of the action of the verbs. Hence, when the following questions are asked, the following corresponding answers will be given:

Questions Answers

Who bought the watch? My mother Who prepared a sumptuous meal? My father Who will dance? They What hits the hawker? The bus We can then say confidently that the sentences above are in active voices since the verbs therein indicate that the subjects are performing the action of the verb.

Structure of the Active Voice

An active voice has a simple and direct structure, making it easier to understand. The structure is: Active Voice = Subject + Verb + Object For example:

a. My mother bought a watch.

b. My father prepared a sumptuous meal.

c. They will dance Kpalongo.

d. The bus hits the hawker Now, let us analyse the structure of the sentences to ascertain them as active voices.

Subject (what performs the action) Verb Object (what receives/suffers the action) My mother bought a watch My father prepared a sumptuous meal They will dance Kpalongo The bus hits the hawker We observe that all the sentences have subjects that perform the action of the verbs, making all the sentences in active voices. It is important to note that not all sentences in active voices have objects.

Consider the sentences below:

a. The guests will arrive tomorrow.

b. My friend talks softly.

c. The people grumbled.

All the sentences have no objects. The verbs have been used intransitively, meaning they do not need objects to complete their meaning (refer to Year One Learner Material).

Notwithstanding, all the sentences have verbs that tell who have performed the action of the verb (as shown below), qualifying them as being in the active voices.

Look at the illustration below; it further demonstrates the veracity of the sentences as active ones.

Questions Answers

Who arrives tomorrow? The guests Who talks softly? My friend Who grumbled? The people Other Examples of Sentences in the Active Voice ₁. The children(subject) played(verb) in the yard.

2. The pedestrian(subject) looked(verb) left and right before crossing the road.

3. The learner(subject) prepared(verb) a PowerPoint presentation(object).

4. The imam(subject) told(verb) the congregants(object) to be tolerant.

5. The teacher(subject) jumped(verb) the rope(object) with the students.

The Passive Voice

A verb is said to be in the active voice when the verb indicates that something has been done to the subject. In the passive voice, therefore, the subject is what receives the action of the verb.

Structure of the Passive Voice

Here, the object in an active structure becomes the grammatical subject while the subject in an active structure becomes the notional subject but occupying the object position.

Let us begin by converting these active sentences already discussed above into passive voice.

GS means Grammatical Subject NS means Notional Subject

Table 12.1: Active voice vs Passive voice Active voice Passive voice My mother∕ bought ∕a watch.

GS V O A watch∕ was bought∕ by∕ my mother.

S V by + NS My father∕ prepared ∕a sumptuous meal.

GS V O A sumptuous meal∕ was prepared ∕by ∕my father.

GS V by + NS They ∕will dance ∕Kpalongo.

G S V O Kpalongo ∕would be danced∕ by ∕them.

G S V by + NS The bus ∕hits ∕the hawker GS V O The hawker ∕was hit∕ by the bus.

GS V by + NS From the representation above, it can be observed that the object in an active sentence becomes the subject in a passive sentence. This is followed by the verb, then ‘by’ and finally the notional subject or agent.

1. In the table, the active sentence, ‘My mother bought a watch’, has ‘my mother’ as the subject and ‘a watch’ as the object.

171

2. However, in the passive voice, ‘a watch’ becomes the subject while ‘my mother’ assumes the object position preceded with ‘by’ as depicted below:

A watch was bought by my mother.

This is where it becomes confusing for learners like yourself to find out what is truly the subject in the sentence.

The subject in the passive sentence is ‘A watch’ because it is what is being talked about. It also determines the verb agreement and grammatical function. This type of subject is termed a grammatical subject.

In the passive sentence, also, we realise that when asked who bought the watch, the answer will be ‘my mother’. So, you see, based on meaning, we will call ‘my mother’ in the passive structure a notional subject because it is not occupying the subject position, but it is still conveying the meaning of who or what does something.

Other Examples

a. A PowerPoint presentation was prepared by the learner.

b. The congregants were told to be tolerant (by the imam).

c. The rope was jumped by the teacher with the students.

In all the sentences above, we can see that all the subjects – A PowerPoint presentation, The congregants, The rope– receive the action of the verbs. Hence, when the following questions are asked, the following corresponding answers will be given:

Questions Answers

What was prepared? A PowerPoint presentation Who were told? The congregants What was jumped? The rope We can therefore conclude that all the sentences are in the passive voice since the verbs therein indicate that the subjects receive the action of the verb. A passive voice therefore has the structure below:

Subject (the object in the active) + V (BE + past participle) + (by + Agent/subject in the active voice/ the doer of the action) More examples:

a. The test was done by the family doctor.

b. The visitors were told to sit in the foyer by the receptionist.

c. That position has been occupied by Ms Andani for years.

d. The laptops were subsidised by the government.

e. The 18-unit block was commissioned by the minister of education.

Figure 12.2: Examples of active and passive voice

Activity 12.1 Identifying Verbs in Songs

1. Go to Google or YouTube and download the lyric of R2bees ‘Life’ song.

2. Watch or listen to the song and pay attention to the lyrics, especially the verbs.

3. The lyric is in pidgin so try and convert at least five lines into standard English and underline all the verbs. Do this activity with your peers. One can write and read out the lyrics for the others to hear and help in the conversion and underlining.

Activity 12.2 Identification of Active Voice

1. Let us consider the following lines from the song and convert them to standard English:

Pidgin Standard

Dem dey talk say life sweet pass. They say life is sweeter But you gatz take am easy But you have to take it easy Dem dey fly but you dey for land. They fly but you are on land So, make your own history …. So, make your own history Winners no dey quit because quitters no go win Winners don’t quit because quitters don’t win

2. Identify all the verbs.

3. Who or what performs the action of the verbs in the lines or sentences identified. (Work with the standard expressions)

4. Note your general observation(s) relative to the way the subjects respond to the verbs.

Activity 12.3 Converting Active to Passive Voice

1. Write down or speak three sentences that describe activities you have undertaken in the day. Who or what performs the activities in your sentences should occupy the subject position. Here are some examples to guide you:

a. My group presented the project work to the class.

b. The senior house mistress sent me to the staff room.

c. The headteacher reminded the learners to obey all school rules.

2. Identify all the subjects and objects.

Subjects have been underlined; objects have been emboldened, as depicted above.

3. Convert all your sentences in number 1 by making the objects subject and taking the subjects to the object position preceding it with ‘by’.

Use the format below Subject (the objects in sentences under number 1) + V (BE + past participle) + (by + subject in the active voice) Here are some converted examples to guide you:

Active voice Passive voice My group presented the project work to the class.

The project work was presented to the class by my group.

The senior house mistress sent me to the staff room.

I was sent to the staff room by the senior house mistress.

The headteacher reminded the learners to obey all school rules.

The learners were reminded by the headteacher to obey all school rules.

4. What do you observe generally about the conversion and how the verb relates with the subjects?

Activity 12.4 Converting Active Sentences Without Objects to Passive Voice

1. Identify the subjects and objects in the following sentences:

a. The children jumped.

b. The school choir sang at the programme

c. The school administration met.

2. What do you observe? Do all the sentences have objects?

3. Rewrite the sentences by adding objects to each of them. You can tell a peer or record your revised sentences.

4. Convert them to passive sentences by placing the objects you incorporated as subjects.

The first one has been done for you as a guide:

The children jumped. ACTIVE The children jumped the rope. ACTIVE The rope was jumped by the children. PASSIVE

Activity 12.5 Converting Passive Sentences Without Objects to Active Voice

1. Identify the grammatical and notional subjects in the following sentences:

a. The school gate is opened.

b. A meeting was held.

c. The decision has been finalised.

2. What do you observe? Do all the sentences have notional subjects?

3. Rewrite the sentences by adding objects preceded with ‘by’ to each of them.

You can tell a peer or record your revised sentences.

4. Convert them to active sentences by placing the notional subjects you incorporated as grammatical subjects.

5. The first one has been done for you as a guide:

6. The school gate is opened. PASSIVE

7. The school gate is opened by the security officer. PASSIVE

8. The security officer opens the school gate. ACTIVE

Figure 12.3: Rules from Passive Voice