Production and Distribution of Text

Cohesive Devices are words or expressions in a text or utterance that connect ideas or messages. These expressions/words help us to put our ideas properly together in a text to become a unified whole. Because they connect ideas in texts, they are also referred to as linking words/expressions or connectors. When these devices are applied effectively, they help us to move swiftly and logically from one idea to another in our conversation, either oral or written. Effective use of these devices will enable everyone to identify the relationship between sentences and the paragraphs of a text. There are many of these devices which are used for different purposes. They could be used to indicate addition, show a sequence of thoughts, to give emphasis, to contrast ideas, to show illustration, exceptions, comparison, cause and effect, and others. The chart below shows examples of these devices and their different uses.

Figure 2.2: Examples of cohesive devices and their various uses

Note: Cohesive devices were treated extensively in your Year One English Language Learner Material. This might be a good time to check again on the types of cohesive devices and to think again about their application in spoken and written English.

Let us turn to paragraph coherence.

Paragraph Coherence

A coherent paragraph conveys meaning to an audience with complete clarity. To achieve this, all the sentences that come together to explain an idea/thought should be well connected using transitional words, expressions, phrases, or pronouns. When these are applied effectively, all the sentences should work together to convey a step- by-step flow of thought. Below are some characteristics of a coherent paragraph.

• Unity: This is when all the sentences that are together as a paragraph are related to a single idea or topic. This means that all the sentences should be connected to the idea under discussion.

• Cohesion: Cohesion ensures linkages of words, phrases, clauses and sentences to the main idea of the paragraph. This relationship helps to construct the paragraph for better understanding.

• Logical order: The logical presentation of sentences is another characteristic of paragraph coherence. This sequencing helps you to connect sentences well. With this, each sentence is built on the previous one.

• Clear relationships: This allows you to make clear relationships between ideas, highlighting the connections between the old and new information.

Consider the following steps when writing in order to achieve paragraph coherence:

• Start with a clear topic sentence. A topic sentence contains the main idea of the paragraph. Even though a topic sentence can be placed anywhere in the paragraph (beginning, middle, or end), it is easier to develop the pattern when it begins a paragraph.

• It is also important to consider the usage of cohesive devices. This would help you to connect the ideas.

• You can also repeat keywords or phrases in the discussion. When this is done it helps readers to keep the main idea in mind as they read.

• Use pronouns to refer to previously mentioned ideas. This helps to get rid of unnecessary repetition and boredom in reading the text.

• Be consistent in the usage of verb tenses. This means that you should use a single tense form throughout the text unless a change of tense is important to the meaning.

It could be simple present tense form (play or plays, work or works, dance or dances [depending on the subjects used), or simple past tense form (played, worked, danced).

An example of a paragraph is given below:

There are places and sceneries that just take away your worries. Life can be so stressful.

Sometimes you cannot help but seek refuge in a space where all your worries are so subtle that you barely take notice of them. Choosing a place that connects with your innermost self becomes a necessity. Furthermore, a quite greenery scene on the countryside with birds chirping and heartwarming breezes devoid of fumes and gutter- stench, a relaxing chair with a cold glass of orange juice sitting next to the chair, with or without a novel in hand becomes life’s greatest blessing in such moments. Natel Resort comes in handy with its embracing eco gardens filled with grass and trees that canopy the beautiful scenery with shade and of course their restaurant’s sweet orange juice. I would give anything in the world just to visit this place again and again.

Activity 2.4 Identification of Cohesive Devices

1. Read the passage below and find the cohesive devices:

If you have an idea of the size of the dictionary and the position of a particular letter in the alphabet, you can tap such knowledge to determine quickly where in the dictionary a particular word can be found. For instance, knowing that ‘L’ and ‘M’ come right in the middle of the alphabetical list should guide your steps straight to the middle of the dictionary for words like ‘land’, ‘time’, ‘maintain’, ‘millennium’ and so on. With such knowledge, you will realise that it is futile to look for an ‘s’ word in the first half of the dictionary because ‘s’ comes much later than ‘m’. This principle should enable you to decide the approximate position of any word before consulting the dictionary.

Apart from giving the meaning of words, the dictionary often gives a very good hint on their proper usage. For instance, it shows the preposition which should follow a verb to get a specific meaning. Consider the expressions ‘to take over’, ‘to take up’, and ‘to take on’, which have different meanings. Each phrasal verb is explained with examples. Besides, a good dictionary indicates idiomatic and figurative uses of certain words. It also often indicates when a word is used informally, when it is outdated, or when it has several meanings.

So, a dictionary should be seen as a versatile tool in the hands of all students.

2. Identify cohesive devices used in the passage.

Activity 2.5 Paragraph Coherence and Composition

With two of your elbow partners,

1. discuss coherence using the passage in Activity 2.4 and identify the key characteristics of a paragraph.

2. use appropriate cohesive devices to compose a two-paragraph essay on a topic of your choice, and present your essay orally to the entire class.

Figure 4.2: Cohesive devices image Cohesive devices have been treated in year one. Let us have revise. Cohesive devices are the glue that holds sentences and ideas together, helping your writing to flow smoothly. They connect thoughts, guide readers and make communication clear and logical. Cohesive devices can be classified into several categories, including:

1. Conjunctions: These are words that connect clauses or sentences. Examples include:

c. And: used to add information (e.g., "I like reading, and I enjoy writing.")

d. But: used to show contrast (e.g., "I wanted to go, but it was raining.")

e. Or: used to present alternatives (e.g., "Would you like tea or coffee?")

2. Pronouns: These are used to avoid repetition of nouns. Examples include:

a. He, she, it, they: (e.g., "Adzo loves painting. She spends hours on it.")

b. This, that, these, those: (e.g., "The book is fascinating. This is why I recommend it.")

3. Lexical Cohesion: This involves the use of related words or phrases that enhance the meaning of the text. Examples include:

a. Synonyms: Using different words with similar meanings (e.g., "happy" and "joyful").

b. Antonyms: Using contrasting terms to highlight differences (e.g., "hot" and "cold").

4. Adverbials: These are words or phrases that provide additional information about the action in a sentence. Examples include:

a. Time: "Yesterday, I went to the market."

b. Place: "She is studying in the library."

Cohesive Devices and Linear Narrative Essays

Cohesive devices, such as conjunctions, pronouns, and lexical ties, help to link sentences and ideas together, creating a sense of unity and coherence in writing. They guide the reader through the text, indicating relationships between ideas and ensuring that the narrative is easier to follow. Linear narratives, on the other hand, present events in a sequential order, typically following a clear beginning, middle, and end.

This structure helps to build a logical progression of events, making it easier for the reader to understand the storyline. Cohesive devices ensure that a linear narrative essay flows smoothly and makes sense from start to finish. In using them, just be careful to avoid and… and… and in your writing (and also in your talking).

In summary, cohesive devices play an important role by enhancing coherence in a paragraph. By effectively using conjunctions, pronouns, lexical cohesion and adverbials, you can improve the clarity and flow of your writing.

Activity 4.5 Self-Assessment

Study the story below:

Once upon a time in a vibrant village in Ghana, there lived a young boy named Tetteh. Tetteh was a hardworking student at the local Senior High School. Every morning, he would wake up early to prepare for school. First, he would brush his teeth and then take a quick shower. After that, he would have breakfast with his family. They usually enjoyed a delicious meal of porridge and bread. After breakfast, Tetteh would grab his backpack and head out the door. As he walked to school, he would greet his neighbours. "Good morning, Auntie Adiza!" he would say cheerfully. This routine made him feel connected to his community.

When he arrived at school, Tetteh attended his first class, which was English. During the lesson, his teacher emphasized the importance of using cohesive devices to make writing clearer. Tetteh listened attentively. For example, his teacher explained how words like "however," "therefore," and "in addition" can link ideas together.

Inspired by the lesson, Tetteh decided to practise these devices in his own writing.

Later that day, he worked on an essay about the importance of education. He wrote, "Education is essential for personal growth. Furthermore, it opens doors to various opportunities." He was proud of how his sentences flowed together.

At lunchtime, Tetteh sat with his friends, sharing stories and laughter. They talked about their dreams for the future. Tetteh shared, "I want to become a doctor;

therefore, I need to study hard." His friends supported his ambition, saying, "In addition, we can study together for our exams!" After school, Tetteh returned home, feeling most accomplished. He reflected on his day, realising how cohesive devices had improved his writing. That evening, he shared his essay with his family, and they praised him for his hard work.

In conclusion, Tetteh learned that using cohesive devices not only made his writing clearer but also helped him connect his thoughts effectively. He promised to continue practising, knowing that each day was a step closer to achieving his dreams.

1. With three of your peers, identify the cohesive devices in the story above.

(Note, they are not necessarily in Tetteh’s writing.)

2. Still with your peers, discuss the features of the narrative above.

3. Write a one paragraphed story. Use appropriate linking devices to link the ideas in your paragraph. Do this activity in isolation.

4. Invite the three peers to join for this activity: Compose an introductory paragraph containing the:

a. Exposition

b. Introduction of characters

c. Setting

d. Rising action Use the passage below to perform the activities that follow:

Once upon a time, in a vibrant village in Ghana, there lived a young boy named Haruna. He was known for his curious mind and adventurous spirit. Every day, Haruna dreamed of exploring the legendary Golden Stool, which was said to hold the spirit of the Ashanti people. One sunny morning, Haruna decided to embark on a journey to find the Golden Stool. He packed his bag with some water, fruits, and a map given to him by his grandfather. As he stepped outside, he felt a rush of excitement. First, he waved goodbye to his mother, who reminded him to be safe and to return before sunset. As he walked, Haruna noticed the beautiful scenery around him. The lush green trees swayed in the gentle breeze, and colourful birds chirped merrily. However, he was also aware of the challenges that lay ahead.

Therefore, he stayed focused on his goal.

After a few hours of walking, Haruna reached a dense forest. While he was navigating through the thick bushes, he suddenly heard a rustling sound.

Curiously, he turned around and saw a small monkey stuck in a thorny bush.

Haruna felt compassion for the little creature. So, he carefully approached it and freed the monkey. In return, the monkey happily led him through a shortcut out of the forest. Eventually, Haruna arrived at a river. Although it looked deep and wide, he remembered the stories of the brave warriors who crossed it. Thus, he gathered his courage and found a fallen tree that served as a bridge. With determination, he crossed the river safely and continued his journey.

Later that day, after much walking, Haruna finally spotted a majestic hill. At the top lay the legendary Golden Stool, glimmering in the sunlight. As he climbed the hill, he felt a sense of pride and accomplishment. Finally, he reached the summit and stood before the Golden Stool. Haruna realised that the journey itself had taught him valuable lessons about kindness, bravery, and perseverance. Moreover, he understood that the Golden Stool was not just a symbol of power but also a reminder of the strength and unity of his people.

In conclusion, Haruna returned home with stories to tell, and lessons learned. He shared his adventure with his family and friends, inspiring them to embark on their own journeys. From that day forward, Haruna became known as the boy who sought the Golden Stool, and his tale reminded everyone of the importance of courage and community.

5. Write down the moral lessons and values learned from the story above.

6. Indicate the purpose of the tenses of the verbs used in the passage. Support your claims with examples of verbs from the passage.

In year one you learned about the structure of an essay. Let us take a quick look at the essay itself and the structure briefly. Then, we will focus to the concluding part.

An essay is a structured piece of writing that presents an argument or a narrative.

Understanding the structure of an essay is crucial for crafting a coherent and persuasive piece.

Figure 6.1: Structure of an essay

1. Introductory paragraph: The introductory paragraph is the first paragraph of an essay or a piece of writing. Its purpose is to introduce the main topic, grab the reader's attention and interest to make them want to read on. The introductory paragraph provides background information on the topic.

2. Body Paragraphs: The body of the essay is where the main points are developed.

It usually consists of several paragraphs, each focusing on a specific aspect of the topic being discussed. Each paragraph might well include:

a. Topic Sentence: A sentence that provides the main idea of the paragraph.

b. Evidence and Examples: Supporting details, facts, quotations, or examples that substantiate the topic sentence.

c. Analysis: Indication of how the evidence relates to the thesis and why it is significant.

d. Transition: A sentence or phrase that smoothly connects one paragraph to the next.

Note: Each body paragraph needs a conclusion to wrap up the essay and reinforce the main argument in the paragraphs. It summarises the main points discussed, reinforces the thesis statement, and provides closure to the reader. It may also suggest implications, future directions, or a call to action, depending on the purpose of the writing.

Understanding the structure of an essay is essential for effective writing. By following this framework, writers like you can present your ideas clearly and logically, making it easier for readers to understand and engage with your arguments.

Let us focus on the concluding paragraph of an essay.

The conclusion of an essay: This is the final part of the essay. It indicates that you have come to the end of what you want to write. It provides a sense of closure and leaves a lasting impression on the reader. Here are some key elements to consider when writing an effective conclusion:

1. Restate the thesis of the essay. You need to bring out the main argument in the essay but in your own words.

2. Briefly summarise the main points made in the body paragraphs of the essay.

This helps to reinforce the ideas presented and ensures that the reader recalls the significant aspects of the discussion.

3. Highlight how the points made are connected and contribute to the overall argument.

4. Conclude with a lasting impression. This could be a thought-provoking quote, a call to action, or a rhetorical question that encourages further reflection.

5. Avoid introducing totally new information. The conclusion is not the place to introduce new points/ideas. Focus on wrapping up the discussion and reinforcing what has already been said.

6. Rhetorical devices are also allowed as they add depth and emotion to your essay.

7. Proofread and edit. Go through your essay and ensure that everything you intend to say is what you have put into writing. Make corrections where necessary and read over again.

8. Conclude by creating a reference to your opening paragraph.

By adhering to these guidelines, you can write a conclusion that effectively sums up your essay and leaves the reader with a clear understanding of your argument and its significance. At the end, it is wise to read back through what you have written. It is easy to make careless slips; it is also easy to leave points in a confused state. Thus, always leave time for rereading, revision and correction where required. It is far better that you spot your errors rather than your reader does so.

Now let us put together our understanding of the features and structure of an essay to write formal letters.

Figure 6.2: The format of a formal letter Writing a formal letter involves a specific structure and style to ensure your message is clear, professional, and respectful.

Here are the steps to guide you through the process:

₁. Include Your Address: At the top of the letter, include your address aligned to the left.

2. Date: Below your address, add the date when you are writing the letter. Use a formal date format, e.g., ‘20th October, 2024’.

3. Recipient’s Address: Include the recipient's address next. This should also be aligned to the left and can include the recipient's name, title, company name, street address, city, and state.

4. Salutation: Use a formal greeting. If you know the recipient's name, use ‘Dear [Title] [Last Name],’ (e.g., ‘Dear Mr. Acheampong,’). If you do not know the name, you can use ‘Dear Sir or Madam,’.

5. Body of the Letter:

a. Introduction: Start with a brief introduction stating the purpose of the letter.

b. Main Content: Provide detailed information. This may include the reason for writing, necessary explanations, and any relevant details.

c. Conclusion: Summarise your points and state any actions you expect from the recipient, if applicable.

6. Closing: Use a formal closing phrase such as ‘Yours sincerely,’ (when you have written to a named person) ‘Yours faithfully,’ (when you have written to someone as Sir or Madam) or ‘Best regards,’ followed by a comma. Note that the ‘s’ in sincerely and the ‘f’ in faithfully here should not be written in capitals.

7. Signature: Leave space for your signature (if printed) above your typed name. If the letter is sent electronically, you can simply type your name.

8. Proofread: Before sending, carefully proofread your letter for any grammatical or spelling errors. Ensure that the tone remains formal and professional throughout.

By following these steps, you can ensure that your formal letter is well-structured, professional, and effective in conveying your message.

Activity 6.3 Discussion of Features of a Formal Letter

1. With three of your friends, discuss the features of a formal letter.

2. With your group members, write a letter to the minister of education, telling him three major problems you face in your school and giving him three reasons why he should visit and come to your assistance.

3. Now compose a concluding paragraph on the above essay by applying the elements in concluding an essay discussed earlier.

Activity 6.4 Identification of the Structure of an Essay In pairs, examine the essay below. Identify the introductory, body and concluding paragraphs.

Education plays a crucial role in shaping the future of individuals and nations. In Ghana, it is particularly significant as it paves the way for personal development and national progress. The Ghanaian educational system, especially at the Senior High School (SHS) level, is designed to equip students with essential knowledge and skills. This essay will examine the structure and features of education in Ghana, highlighting its importance in fostering critical thinking, creativity, and social responsibility among learners.

The structure of education in Ghana is divided into various levels: basic education, secondary education, and tertiary education. After completing basic education, students advance to Senior High School, which lasts for three years.

Here, learners engage in a broad curriculum that includes core subjects such as Mathematics, English, and Science, along with electives that align with their interests and career aspirations. This structured approach ensures that students receive a well-rounded education, preparing them for the challenges of higher education and the workforce.

One of the notable features of Ghanaian education is its emphasis on practical skills alongside theoretical knowledge. Schools encourage students’ participation in co-curricular activities, such as sports and clubs, which foster teamwork and leadership abilities. Additionally, the introduction of technical and vocational education alongside academic courses has empowered students to pursue careers in various fields, thus reducing unemployment rates among the youth.

Furthermore, the role of teachers is vital in the educational landscape of Ghana.

Educators are not only facilitators of knowledge but also mentors who guide students in their personal and academic growth. Professional development programs for teachers are essential to enhance their teaching methods and adapt to the evolving educational needs of society.

In conclusion, education in Ghana serves as a foundation for individual and national development. By examining its structure and features, it is clear that it aims to nurture well-rounded individuals who can contribute positively to society. As Ghana continues to invest in education, the potential for growth and improvement remains vast, ensuring a brighter future for all Ghanaians.