Text Types and Purposes

Activity 8.4 Peer Discussion on Narrative Writing

Tell your colleagues what you know about narrative writing using your own words.

(Compare your answer with the note below.)

A narrative is a written or spoken account of a series of events or experiences.

It basically means telling an audience about something that happened, where it happened, when it happened, and how it happened. This happens in the form of telling a story. To have a better narrative, there should be plot, characters, setting, conflict, structure, theme, and point of view. Narrative writing is therefore a form of writing that gives an account of an event or situation.

Features of a Narrative

_(A) narrative is a type of writing that tells a story. It can be based on real experiences or fictional events. Here are some key features of a good narrative:

1. Personal Experience

a. Many narratives come from real-life experiences.

b. Writers share their own story to give a firsthand account.

2. Storytelling

a. A narrative follows a beginning, middle, and end structure.

b. The beginning introduces the story, the middle develops the events, and the end provides a conclusion.

3. Descriptive Language

a. Writers use vivid descriptions to help readers see, hear, smell, taste and feel what is happening.

b. This makes the story more engaging.

4. Reflection

a. The writers share their thoughts and feelings about the experience.

b. This helps the reader connect to the story.

5. First-Person Perspective: Most narratives use "I," "me," and "my" because they are personal stories.

6. Chronological Order

a. Events are told in the order they happened.

b. This makes the story easy to follow.

7. Sensory Details: Writers describe what they see, hear, taste, smell and feel to make the story more real.

8. Dialogue: Conversations between characters make the story lively and realistic.

9. Emotional Connection: A good narrative makes the reader feel emotions like joy, sadness, or excitement.

10. Lesson or Meaning: Narratives often teach a lesson or share an important message.

11. Engaging Opening: A strong introduction grabs the reader’s attention.

12. Clear and Coherent Flow: Ideas should connect smoothly from one paragraph to another.

The Structure of a Narrative

A narrative generally has a clear structure:

1. Introduction

a. Starts with a hook (an interesting beginning).

b. Gives background information.

c. Includes a thesis statement (what the story is about).

2. Rising Action: Events build up, leading to the main conflict or problem.

3. Climax: The most exciting or intense part of the story.

4. Falling Action: The story starts to calm down after the climax.

5. Resolution (Ending)

a. The story is wrapped up.

b. The writer reflects on what was learned.

Style in Narrative Writing

A writer’s style makes a story unique. Here are some important elements:

1. Tone: The attitude of the writer (formal, informal, happy, sad).

2. Voice: The personality of the speaker comes through in the story.

3. Language: The choice of words, sentence structure, and literary devices.

4. Dialogue: Conversations between characters to add insights into personalities.

5. Imagery: Vivid descriptions that create mental pictures.

6. Figurative Language: Use of metaphors, symbols and foreshadowing to make the story deeper.

7. Syntax: It is the part of grammar that deals with how words are arranged to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is the rule of sentence building, relationship, patterns and structure that govern how sentences are formed.

The overall impact of a narrative piece can be magnificent, when these features are developed with skill. We all have the capacity to be writers, but the hard work remains to be done.

Activity 8.5 Analysis of Narrative Writing

Examine the narratives below critically and use them as a guide to discuss the plot structure of a linear narrative essay.

Narrative 1 The villagers had lost a few goats and poultry to a mystery. Lurid tales about the missing farm animals spread like wildfire in the village. Many speculated there were thieves in the village while others suggested a wild beast was rampaging. Despite several speculations, the mystery on the disappearances remained unsolved. The whole village was in the state of dismay when a tiger suddenly appeared and launched another attack on the village. The prey was not any farm animal this time, it was a young child playing by the barn. The villagers had had enough, they had to put a stop to it once and for all. They organised a group of the bravest men in the village, armed them with shotguns and knives, and planned to attack the tiger. They also took a goat to lure the tiger into the trap.

The plan was to trap the tiger and later kill him. I was among the members of the group who left late at night. For hours, we did not see anything except mosquitos and crickets around us. Then we saw paw prints on the muddy ground which assured us of the tiger’s usual trail. Thereupon, as the sun rose, we set up a trap using a goat as bait. We were assured that this would catch the tiger immediately. We had almost given up when suddenly around daybreak we heard the bushes rustle and the leaves crackle. All of us shivered to our spines and saw the mystery beast coming toward us. We charged our guns and pointed them toward the wild beast. We steadied our guns toward the tiger as he jumped to grab the goat. He fell into the trap. One of the members shot the tiger dead and we rescued the goat safely back to the village.

The mission was accomplished. We had killed the wild beast and emerged successful.

It was an amazing hunting trip, one that would always remain in my memory.

Narrative 2 One day Tommy was walking home from school. He saw a man coming out of a shop. The man was carrying a lot of things. He was walking toward his car. Suddenly, something fell from his pocket. Tommy saw it but the man did not. Tommy ran and picked up the thing. It was a wallet. ‘Sir! You dropped your wallet’. Tommy called.

‘You dropped your wallet,’ Tommy repeated. ‘Here is it. It fell from your pocket when you were walking’.

Tommy gave him the wallet. ‘Oh, thank you very much,’ the man said. ‘It’s all right.’

Tommy answered.

The man opened the wallet and took out some money. ‘Here, this is for you,’ he said.

Tommy refused saying, ‘I don’t want the money, I just wanted to help you.’ The man smiled and said, ‘All right, I’m not going to give you any money, but please, let me take you home.’ ‘All right,’ Tommy said, and got into the car. In the car they talked about Tommy’s school. Tommy was telling him about his friends and they arrived.

‘This is my house,’ Tommy said. ‘Won’t you come in?’ the man went with Tommy into the house. He met Tommy’s parents and told them about what happened. Tommy’s parents became very proud of their son.

Activity 8.6 Discussion on Moral Lesson

Join two colleagues and discuss the moral lesson and values you can learn from narrative 2 above.

Activity 8.7 Composition of an Introductory Paragraph

Use appropriate expressions to link ideas in an introductory paragraph on the topic, ‘the benefits of hard work’.

Activity 8.8 Composition and Presentation of an Essay

1. Compose a narrative essay on a topic of your choice containing introductory paragraph, body paragraphs and concluding paragraph.

2. Use literary devices such as metaphor, imagery, alliteration, and others to create a style for your narrative.

3. Present your work in class for your colleagues to commend and critique.

Activity 10.6 Researching Sample Speech

1. Research and then write headline notes about speech writing. Include the types and their significance to the audience.

2. Find examples from the internet of great speeches, written versions, and delivered by YouTube. Why do you think some speeches are regarded as ‘great’?

3. Check on the use of ‘rhetoric’ in speeches. You might well be surprised at the simple techniques which can lead to effective speeches.

Activity 10.7 Presentation of Sample Speech

1. Do a PowerPoint presentation of your findings for Activity 10.6 for the benefit of your colleagues in the class.

2. Why were some presentations better than others?

3. Now compare your responses with the notes below.

Speech Writing

A speech is a form of communication that is often given or spoken for a particular purpose. The purposes of speeches vary from informing, persuading and entertaining among others. It could be read from notes or simply spoken. The occasion for which the speech is given determines the type to be given. A speech could be delivered to a single audience or to a large crowd. This implies that there is always a target group that a speech is directed to. This target group has a role to play in speech delivery as it informs the speaker of the type, language, and style of the speech. A speech could be formal or informal.

Activity 10.8 Discussion on Speech Setting

Study the images below and discuss with your friends what the images are about.

I trust you had a productive discussion. Good! Now, let us discuss the various types of speech.

Types of Speech

There are mainly two types of speeches. These are formal and informal speeches.

Formal Speech

Formal speeches are usually planned and prepared for formal or official gatherings where important issues need to be addressed. This means that this type of speech is not given without planning. There is a laid down procedure for its delivery. Thus, before a formal speech is delivered there is the need to gather data on what is to be discussed or addressed. Then the data is planned and prepared based on the format of the formal speech. There are two main types of formal speeches. They are: informative speech and persuasive speech.

1. Informative Speech: An informative speech usually informs but can have the aim of changing the viewpoint of listeners. This type of speech is usually given by owners, delegated persons or leaders of companies or institutions to their employees or workers, colleagues or a target audience. They inform/educate/enlighten the target audience about company or organisational policies and principles.

They could also give specific information about new policies or changes effected in the organisation. Informative speeches are not only used in companies or institutions. They also play critical roles in a society. Thus, rulers/leaders of communities employ this speech type to deliver messages to their audience or subjects. This happens when there is a piece of information to be given out. Even in families, parents inform or give out information to their wards or spouse on specific issues/subjects. The language of this could be instructive.

2. Persuasive Speech: This type of speech is usually given by politicians or debaters.

Just as the name implies, they are aiming to persuade and convince their target audience to stake a stance with them. This speech type appeals to the senses of audience. The main aim of this is to gain the favour of the audience so that they support the speaker’s point of view/stance about the subject under consideration.

The language of this is appealing in form and targeted to convince the audience to accept what the speaker says.

Informal Speech

Informal speeches on the other hand are often impromptu. They could be delivered anywhere or at any given point in time.

1. Entertaining Speech: They are speeches meant to make people laugh without any motive of causing harm or jeopardising people’s reputation or image. They are sometimes given by comedians and are also impromptu.

2. Special Occasion Speech: Just as the name implies, they are speeches given on special occasions like marriages, naming ceremonies, parties, funerals and farewell events, amongst others.

Activity 10.9 Grouping of Topics Under Formal and Informal Complete the table below by grouping the following speeches/addresses into formal and informal.

A speech delivered at Independence Day celebration, A speech delivered to colleagues at a birthday party, A speech presented by a chief executive at assembly meeting, A speech delivered during farmers’ day celebration, A speech presented at a campaign platform, A speech by a senior prefect of a school to colleagues at assembly.

Formal Speech Informal Speech

Activity 10.10 Listening and Discussion

Surf the internet and look for speeches made by some Ghanaian high-ranking personalities. Listen to audios, identify their types and discuss the features they have in common.

The Process of Writing Formal Speeches

• Know the purpose for which you are giving the speech The purpose of a speech is an important element in speech writing. It gives you direction as to what you want to achieve by the end. Knowing the reason why you are giving such a speech should enable you to meet your target. Having the purpose in mind would help you to measure your achievement based on the reactions from your audience.

• Have a target audience in mind Every speech should definitely have a target audience. With the target audience in mind, you are guided as to the level of language and the style you would employ to deliver your speech. Choosing appropriate language and style will help the readers or listeners to understand it.

• Write down the main points of your speech – four or five bullet points are sufficient It is also crucial that you identify and write down the main ideas/points of your speech. These are the thematic points to be explained in detail to the audience.

These should be relevant to the topic to attract the audience’s attention.

• Give your speech an appropriate heading A title is necessary in formal speech delivery. It essentially serves as the main focus of the speech. The title gives the audience a fair idea of what the write-up is all about. Thus, they can perceive the intent of the speech.

• Give an introduction to the speech If your audience is to be motivated to read or listen to your speech it will largely depend on your introduction to the write-up. An interesting title catches the attention of audience, so they are motivated to read or listen to the work. It is vitally important that we create interesting introductions to our speeches. Eye contact is vital from the outset.

• Develop your main points to form the body of your speech The main points should not just be listed. They have to be developed. If not, the audience will not know what you want to communicate to them. You therefore must explain them coherently one after the other for detailed understanding. You are reminded to use formal language and to avoid contraction of words. It is also advisable to use short, and precise sentences for ease of understanding.

• Conclude your speech Conclude your speech by summarising what the audience needs to learn from the presentation. It would help those who might have not grasped the message well to also have something to take home. You could also express a word of appreciation to your audience for taking time to listen to you or read your message. Audiences appreciate being appreciated! Again, eye contact is important here. Nobody likes the speaker reading words of thanks to them. Such words have to be genuine.

The Process of Writing Informal Speeches

The type of informal speech determines its process and structure since it is especially flexible. This speech type does not have a unified structure since it happens impromptu.

A conversation with friends is considered an informal speech. Informal speech might include slang, colloquialism, clichés, jargon, humour and so on. It generally consists of the basic parts of what constitutes an essay - an introduction, body and conclusion.

The ending is particularly important as it highlights the purpose. In a vote of thanks, for instance, it is vital to bring your audience together at the end to offer thanks to everyone. It is easy to overlook the main purpose of an informal speech – so, be careful.

Otherwise, your audience might well be asking why they had to listen to your speech.

Activity 10.11 Discussion on process of writing With three of your classmates, discuss the processes of writing a particular speech (formal/informal)

Activity 10.12 Writing a paragraph of speech Write an introductory paragraph of a speech on a topic of your choice.

IMAGERY As a recap, we have been learning about the structure, themes, figurative languages, subject matter and other literary elements in drama and poetry. We touched on non-African poems and appreciation of them. In our last lesson we learned about themes, their definitions and how to identify them in various poems. Today we are focussing on Imagery in short stories and poems. Imagery in poetry and drama refers to the use of descriptive language that appeals to the senses, helping to create vivid mental pictures and evoke emotions in the audience. It also involves the use of figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, and sensory details, to paint a scene or convey a feeling.

In poetry, imagery can be powerful, as it allows poets to express complex ideas and emotions succinctly, using words to evoke sights, sounds, smells, tastes and tactile sensations.

For example, a poem might describe a sunset in rich detail, allowing readers to visualise the colours and feel the atmosphere. In drama, imagery enhances the visual and emotional experience of a play. Through stage directions, dialogue, and descriptions, playwrights use imagery to set the scene, develop characters, and convey themes. This helps the audience to engage more deeply with the story being told. Imagery, therefore, serves to enrich the text, making it more impactful and memorable for the audience.

Creation of Imagery in Drama, Prose and Poetry

Imagery can be created in poetry and drama through several techniques that engage the senses and evoke emotions.

1. Sensory Details: Using descriptive language that appeals to the five senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch) helps to create vivid images. For example, instead of saying ‘the flower is beautiful’, you could say ‘the flower bursts with vibrant red petals, releasing a sweet fragrance that hovers in the air’

2. Figurative language: This includes metaphors, similes, and personification.

a. Similes compare two things using ‘like’ or ‘as’ (e.g. ‘Her smile was like sunshine’).

b. Metaphors imply a comparison without using ’like’ or ‘as’ (e.g. ‘Time is a thief’).

c. Personification gives human qualities to non-human things (e.g. ‘The wind whispered through the trees.’

3. Vivid Descriptions: Instead of generic descriptions, the use of specific and detailed language can paint a clearer picture in the reader’s mind. For example, instead of saying ‘the storm was strong’, you could describe it as ‘the storm raged with lightning slicing through the sky and thunder crashing like a war drum’.

4. Symbolism: Using symbols can add layers of meaning to imagery. For instance, a storm might symbolise chaos or turmoil, while a calm sea might represent peace or tranquillity.

5. Action and Movement: Describing actions can create dynamic imagery. Instead of static descriptions, use verbs that convey movement (e.g. ‘The leaves danced in the wind’).

6. Mood and Tone: The overall mood and tone of a piece can enhance imagery. A gloomy tone can create dark, foreboding imagery, while a cheerful tone can evoke bright, lively images.

With the aid of these techniques, writers craft powerful imagery that enhances their poetry and drama, making the experience more engaging and direct for the audience.

Let us use the short prose extract below to assess our understanding of the use of imagery in poems, drama and prose.

The Lantern in the Wood

On the outskirts of a small village lay a dense forest shrouded in mystery. Every child in the village had heard the tales of a single, flickering lantern that could sometimes be seen deep among the trees at dusk. No one knew who, or what, carried it. And no villager had dared to go looking for it for as long as anyone could remember.

One-night, young Amina, curious beyond measure, decided she would find the source of the light. Armed only with a small pocketknife and her courage, she slipped into the forest just as the sky began to turn dark. As she ventured deeper, the air grew colder, and the trees loomed larger, their branches like skeletal fingers clawing at the sky.

Mara felt a shiver run down her spine, but she pressed on, her eyes fixed on a faint glimmer of light far ahead.

After what felt like hours, she finally approached the source of the glow. It was indeed a lantern, resting on an ancient, moss-covered stone. Beside it sat a figure cloaked in shadow, so still that for a moment, Amina thought it was part of the forest itself. The figured slowly raised its head and spoke in a voice that was barely a whisper, ‘You have found me, Amina of the village’. She gasped, unsure how it knew her name ‘Who ….

Who are you? ‘I am the Keeper,’ it replied, ‘of stories, of secrets, of things that wish to remain unseen. Every soul that wanders here leaves behind a memory, a hope, or a fear. I collect them. Amina felt both terrified and fascinated. ‘Why do you carry the lantern? The Keeper smiled, a small, gentle smile. ‘To guide those who dare to seek the truth about themselves. Only the brave can find it’.

With that, the figure stood, leaving the lantern on the stone. ‘You may carry it if you wish. But remember, it will reveal all, even the shadows within your own heart’. Amina hesitated, then reached for the lantern. As she did, memories she had buried - moments of sadness, joy, fear, and triumph – flickered within the flame, illuminating her past and, somehow, her path forward.

When she returned to the village, the lantern’s glow never left her heart, guiding her even through the darkest days. And though she never saw the Keeper again, she knew she carried a small piece of the forest’s magic with her always.

Activity 10.13 Identification of the Effectiveness of Imagery

Discuss the effectiveness of the Imagery in the story’ The Lantern in the Wood’. Are you all in agreement on the subject?

Activity 10.14 Discussion on the Effectiveness of the Diction Discuss the effectiveness of the writer’s choice of particular words in the story.

Activity 10.15 Themes, Subject Matter and Figurative Devices

With your group members, discuss the linkage between the structure, themes, subject matter and figurative devices used in the story ‘The Lantern in The Woods’.

Activity 10.16 Creation of story With four of your friends, create a short story or poem and practise it in class.

Explore the use of imagery in the story. Paste your story or poem on your classroom wall for a gallery walk.

Speech Writing

Speech writing is the process of composing a text that is intended to be delivered orally to an audience. It involves organising thoughts, ideas, and information into a coherent structure that effectively communicates a message.

Figure 12.4: A picture showing types of speech Features of Speech Writing ₁. Audience Awareness: Know who you are speaking to: their age, interests and what they expect. This helps you use the right words and tone to communicate effectively.

2. Clarity of Purpose: What is your speech about? Are you informing, persuading or entertaining? Make sure everything you say supports this purpose so your audience understands the message.

3. Engaging Introduction: Start with a strong hook: maybe a question, a story or an interesting fact. This grabs attention and makes people want to listen.

4. Organised Structure: A good speech has a clear beginning, middle and end. Arrange your points logically and use smooth transitions to connect ideas.

5. Conversational Tone: Speak as if you are having a friendly chat. Use words like "I," "you," and "we" to make the audience feel included.

6. Rhetorical Devices: These make speeches more powerful:

a. Repetition: Repeat key points to emphasize them.

b. Rhetorical Questions: Ask questions to make the audience think.

c. Metaphors & Similes: Create vivid comparisons for better understanding.

7. Supporting Evidence: Back up your points with facts, examples or statistics to make your speech more convincing.

8. Emotional Appeal: Use personal stories and expressive language to engage with your audience’s emotions.

9. Clarity and Conciseness: Be clear and to the point. Avoid unnecessary words that could confuse your audience.

10. Memorable Conclusion: End powerfully, summarize main points and leave the audience with something to think about or a call to action.

11. Delivery Considerations: When presenting, pay attention to your speed, pauses, and tone. Make eye contact and use gestures to keep the audience engaged.

12. Revision and Practice: Practice your speech multiple times to make sure it flows well and sounds confident.

Argumentative Essays

An argumentative essay presents an issue, takes a stance and provides strong reasons and evidence to support that stance. The goal is to persuade the reader while considering opposing viewpoints.

Key Features of Argumentative Essays

₁. Clear thesis statement: A strong main argument.

2. Strong evidence: Facts, examples, and expert opinions.

3. Logical reasoning: Clear connections between ideas.

4. Counter-arguments: Recognizing and responding to opposing views.

5. Persuasive language: Convincing words and strategies.

6. Clarity and concision: Clear, simple language without unnecessary details.

Persuasive Writing

Persuasive writing aims to convince the reader to agree with a viewpoint or take action. It is similar to an argumentative essay but often appeals more to emotions.

Key Features of Persuasive Writing

₁. Clear Thesis Statement: The main argument of the writing.

2. Strong Evidence: Facts, examples and statistics to support claims.

3. Emotional Appeal: Connecting with the reader’s feelings.

4. Logical Reasoning: Well-structured arguments.

5. Rhetorical Device: Using storytelling, metaphors, and persuasive techniques.

6. Confident Tone: Being assertive yet respectful.

7. Addressing Counter-Arguments: Acknowledging opposing views.

8. Call to Action: Encouraging the reader to do something.

Persuasive Writing Techniques

₁. Bandwagon Effect: Encouraging readers to follow the majority.

2. Social Proof: Using testimonials and examples to prove a point.

3. Reciprocity: Offering something in return for an action.

4. Repetition: Repeating key points for emphasis.

Activity 12.6 Process of Writing Argumentative Essays

Prepare a PowerPoint presentation on the processes one has to follow in writing argumentative essay.

Activity 12.7 Composition of an Argumentative Essay

Plan and compose an argumentative essay on the topic: Why it is important to always read and write.

Activity 12.8 Discussion and Composition of Debate

Discuss and write a debate on the topic: Smoking is a bad habit.

Debate Writing

A debate is a speech delivered to convince an audience to support or reject a proposition.

A debate does not happen in a vacuum. There must be something to argue about. That is what is called a proposition. It is also known as a motion or topic. There are also two groups/teams in debating. The team that speaks to propose the motion and the one that speaks to oppose the motion.

Figure 14.3: An image of two people having a debate Debate is a formal discussion so it should be approached with awareness of and adherence to the rules. Thus, the language should be formal while persuasive/ convincing. The discussion is often moderated by a ‘chair’. There are also judges to evaluate the presentation/discussion and to decide on the winning team. Also, a debate setting has an audience whom the debaters share their ideas with, seeking to convince them to support their (debaters) side of the discussion.

Figure 14.4: A Picture Showing Some Debate Techniques

Debaters are advised to be decent in their appearance and presentation. Decency in presentation enhances the audience’s understanding of the topic under consideration.

They should also ensure to keep eye contact with the audience to attract their attention to what is on the floor. Do not use abusive language even when you think your opponents do not have a strong case to make.

Debate writing involves preparing speeches, arguments, and content for a debate.

This type of writing articulates and defends a position on a specific topic. It requires a clear understanding of the subject, strong arguments, evidence, and the ability to anticipate and counter opposing viewpoints. Debate writing is structured, persuasive, and requires critical thinking to present a compelling case.

I hope you are enjoying the discussion on debate writing. Before any further discussion is made on the topic, watch a short YouTube video on debate using the links provided:

https://youtu.be/WvYlY_X1ghk?si=uX2ynIEE5TUFeMpW https://youtu.be/CLhkt9O3EuM?si=Y0eWlgjeNpOX0fkO You are now almost prepared to begin the process of debating – as a speaker or as the audience.

Activity 14.12 Discussing the process of debating Based on the videos you have just watched, what will you say is a debate, and what does it entail? Discuss with your group members.

The Key Components of Debate Writing Include:

₁. Introduction: This part introduces the topic, provides context, and states the position or thesis. It is important you say a word of greeting to all gathered for the occasion, with special reference to the person in the chair of the debate. This will draw their attention to you before you begin your presentation. The introduction also captures the vocatives. ‘The Vocatives’ is where you acknowledge the presence of everyone at the gathering so that they feel acknowledged and being part of the occasion. It is not out of place to introduce yourself to the audience. This helps them to know who the person speaking is.

Having done this, you go further to introduce the topic/motion to the audience.

Let them know what you are going to argue about. Thus, the bone of contention.

After stating the topic then you state your position on the topic. This would let your audience know whether you are speaking for the motion/topic or against it. It also enables the audience to follow your discussion steadily. It is crucial you provide relevant information on the topic. The topic may not be familiar to your audience.

Or there may some words in the topic that your audience may not understand.

So, it would do you and audience good when you take your time to explain them.

For this, you need to provide further information/explanation to the motion for audience to know exactly what you are discussing.

2. Arguments: Having completed the introduction, then comes the debate/ arguments. These are the main points that support the position. This is the point at which you raise the ideas/points you want to share with your audience. You may have a lot of points to discuss as far as the topic is concerned. But you are advised to select the stronger ones so that when they are presented, they would convince/ win the audience’s heart.

Remember that coherence is essential at this level. Ensure that appropriate linking expressions are employed to connect your ideas effectively. This allows for swift transitioning from one idea to another. It provides the audience the opportunity to follow the discussion logically so that they would be able to make better judgement of your presentation.

You would have a strong case if you were able to support your points with evidence.

Try as you can to find supporting evidence to each of your ideas. The evidence could be statistics (figures) about the idea being discussed, illustrations (examples), an opinion from expert, person experience, published data, and others. When you do this, it informs the audience that you know what you are talking about.

3. Counter-arguments: This section anticipates the opposing side's arguments and provides rebuttals to weaken their position. As you try to win the hearts of the audience, in the same way as your opponents. After thinking through what you would deliver, think about what your opponents are likely to also come out with.

This calls on you to imagine points for your opponents. If you do this effectively, it enhances your chances to rebut and weaken the points of the opposing team. It suggests to you that you do not arm yourself with only the points that you need to support your side of the competition, but also the points of the other side. Ask yourself what your opponents would be saying about their side of the discussion.

This question would support you to imagine points for your co-debaters so that you can refute/rebut them well.

4. Conclusion: The conclusion requires that you summarise the main points, reinforce the thesis, and above all leave a lasting impression on the audience.

Conclude your speech by restating the main points/ideas you discussed. It helps audience who could not follow the presentation well to also get a fair idea to make informed decision. Also reiterate your stance on the topic. Thus, whether or not you stood for the motion. Call on the audience to vote for you and express your optimism of winning. Finally, thank the audience by expressing your gratitude to them for making time to listen to you.

Activity 14.13 Discussing and debating Discuss and debate on the topic, ‘It is the sole responsibility of your school authority to ensure that the school environment is safe for learning.’

Activity 14.14 Concept mapping Use concept maps to illustrate your ideas for or against the topic, ‘Learners should be banned from accessing social media platforms.’

Activity 14.15 Debating

Debate on the topic, ‘The development of Ghana lies solely in the hands of the government’.

Welcome to our writing lesson on composing minutes! Minutes are essential records of meetings that capture key discussions, decisions, and action items. They serve as an official account, ensuring everyone is on the same page and providing a reference for future discussions. In this lesson, we will explore the structure and format of effective minutes, emphasising clarity and conciseness. You will learn to identify critical information, such as participants, agenda items, and outcomes, while also honing your ability to summarise discussions succinctly. We will discuss the importance of using a neutral tone and precise language to maintain professionalism. By the end of this lesson, you will not only understand how to create comprehensive minutes but also appreciate their role in enhancing communication and accountability within an organisation. Let’s go ahead and master the art of minutes writing!

Key Ideas

• Minutes: An official record of what is discussed during a meeting.

• Minutes writing: A formal and structure way of recording the discussions and decisions of a meeting.

What is Minutes Writing?

Minutes are the official written record of what happens in a meeting. They help organizations keep track of discussions, decisions, and actions to be taken. Minutes serve as a reference for future actions and ensure accountability. Since they are official documents, minutes must follow a formal structure and use formal language. Study

Table 16.1 below carefully to guide you in writing your minute.

Table 16.1: Minutes writing What to know about writing minutes Explanation Importance of Minute writing Helps in record-keeping, accountability, follow-up on tasks, decision verification, and serves as legal documentation.

Types of

Minutes

• Verbatim Minutes – A word-for-word record of the meeting.

• Summary Minutes – A brief summary of key points and decisions.

• Action Minutes – Focus on assigned tasks and responsibilities.

• Resolution Minutes – Records only decisions and resolutions.

• Informal Minutes – Less formal, may include opinions.

• Formal Minutes – Official records used for legal purposes.

• Draft Minutes – Unapproved, subject to changes.

• Confirmed Minutes – Approved and final version.

• Board Meeting Minutes – Documents board of directors' decisions.

Structure of Minutes

(STEPS)

• Heading – Date, time, location, organization name, meeting type.

• Attendance – List of participants.

• Apologies – Names of absent members.

• Approval of Previous Minutes – Confirmation of previous records.

• Agenda Items – Topics to be discussed.

• Discussions – Summary of discussions on agenda items.

• Decisions – Final decisions made.

• Action Items – Tasks assigned to individuals.

• Next Meeting – Date and time of the next meeting.

• Closure – Meeting adjournment and signature of chairperson.

Key Features

of Good Minutes

• Clarity – Use simple and clear language.

• Accuracy – Record details correctly.

• Brevity – Keep it short and to the point.

• Structure – Follow a consistent format.

• Objectivity – Avoid personal opinions.

• Timeliness – Prepare minutes soon after the meeting.

Activity 16.1 Importance of Minutes

With four of your friends, discuss four importance of minutes writing to an organisation.

Activity 16.2 Identifying Features of a Sample Meeting Minute Examine the sample minutes and identify its key features. Orally present your findings to colleagues in your class.

Sample Minutes of a Class Meeting

Minutes of SHS 2 ARTS B Class held on 10th June 2024 at 11:00 AM in SHS 2 ARTS B Classroom Attendance

1. Miss Mavis Amoah (Teacher)

2. Asare Bediako

3. Abena Busia

4. Ellen Ntimama

5. Salifu Johnson

6. Chris Mensah

7. Nii Kappos Robbinson

8. Makafui Eterna

9. Araba Yankson

10. Tettey Nartey Evans

11. Ashong Kweisi

12. Ensi Harrison

13. Salamatu Mohammed

14. Bill Marshall

15. Botchway Belinda

16. Amuzu Dela

17. John Anaba

18. Akua Adoma

Apologies The following sought permission to visit the school clinic

1. Ensi Harrison

2. Salamatu Mohammed

Agenda

1. Issues Bothering the Class

2. Learners' Attitude to Lessons

3. Teachers’ Class Attendance

Issues Bothering the Class Discussion

Several learners raised concerns about the inadequacy of learning materials, including textbooks and other resources. There were also complaints regarding the noise levels in the classroom and the overall physical condition, which were deemed to affect concentration and learning.

1. Decisions/Actions Efforts will be made to secure additional learning materials, either through school funding or donations. The teacher will implement stricter classroom management strategies to reduce noise and maintain an environment conducive for learning.

Learners' Attitude to Lessons

1. Discussion: Observations indicated a mixed level of engagement among learners.

While many learners actively participated, a significant number appeared disengaged and distracted during lessons. Issues with punctuality were also noted, with some students frequently arriving late.

2. Decisions/Actions Interactive teaching methods will be introduced to increase student engagement.

A punctuality reward system will be implemented to encourage timely attendance.

Teachers’ Class Attendance

1. Discussion: The teachers’ attendance has been generally satisfactory, with occasional absence due to unavoidable circumstances such as illness or professional development commitments. However, it was noted that substitute teachers sometimes struggle to maintain continuity with the curriculum.

2. Decisions/Actions

• A comprehensive lesson plan will be developed to ensure that substitute teachers can effectively follow the planned curriculum.

• The possibility of appointing a teacher assistant to support during absence will be explored.

• Conclusion: The meeting concluded with a summary of the discussed issues and agreed-upon actions. By addressing the concerns raised, it is expected that the overall learning environment will improve, leading to better academic performance and student-satisfaction.

Adjournment: The meeting was adjourned at 2:00 PM.

Action Items

1. Miss Mavis Amoah to procure additional learning materials by 30th June 2024.

2. Miss Mavis Amoah to enforce improved classroom management strategies by 25th June 2024.

3. Miss Mavis Amoah to implement interactive teaching methods and a punctuality reward system by 1st July 2024.

4. Miss Mavis Amoah to develop a substitute teacher-friendly lesson plan by 30th June 2024.

Next Meeting

The next class meeting will be held on July 15, 2024, at 10:00am in SHS 2B Classroom.

Minutes Prepared By: Akua Adoma

Approved/Seconded By: John Anaba

Date: 20th June 2024

Activity 16.3 Drafting Minutes

As a secretary to your class, write the minutes of your quarterly class meeting.

Orally share your work with colleagues for their inputs.

Activity 16.4 Researching on Sample Minutes

Research and read samples of minutes, compare them to identify the strategies adopted in writing them. Share your findings with the class through PowerPoint.

Welcome to Section 17 of our writing course! Here, we will learn more about the essential skill of report writing. Reports are crucial in various fields: in the academic world, in the world of work and sometimes for personal reasons, reports are needed.

They serve as structured documents that convey information, present findings and offer recommendations based on research and analysis.

We shall explore some of these types of reports, their key components which make them effective and how to organise your thoughts, gather relevant data and present your findings clearly and concisely. We shall discuss different types of reports such as analytical reports, progress reports and research reports. We shall equally examine their unique purposes and formats. By the end of this discussion, you will have the tools and knowledge to craft a well-structured report that effectively communicates your message to your audience. Let's get started on mastering this important writing skill.

Key Ideas

• A report is basically a spoken or written account of an event or incident.

• Report writing is the process of compiling and organising information or data on an event or incident.

Figure 17.1: Image on reports What is Report Writing?

A report is basically a spoken or written account of an event or incident. It could be on what someone has witnessed, heard, done or investigated. Report writing is the process of compiling and organising information, data and research into a concise and structured document, presenting findings, analysis and recommendations to inform decision-making or for record keeping.

Figure 17.2: An explanation on reports Types of Report Writing

Figure 17.3: Types of Report

There are many types of report writing. Can you guess what they are? Let me give you a hint: the purpose for which a report is written can help you identify its type.

Now let us look at some types of reports.

1. Formal Report: This is an official document with a formal tone, structure and language. It is used in business, academic and technical settings. The report is formal because it is written in official set up and used for official purposes. It also follows a formal structure and uses formal/standard language.

2. Informal Report: This report type is less structured. It is conversational in tone and often used for internal communication, progress updates or brief summaries.

3. Technical Report: This is a detailed, factual document presenting research, experiments or technical information commonly used in scientific, engineering and medical fields. This is a more advanced type of report. It goes beyond just recording what happens to include experimenting and examining a product to find some technical information not understood by a layman.

4. Business Report: It is an analytical document that addresses market trends, financial performance or strategic planning used in corporate decision-making. As the name suggests, this report is often written in business establishments to help managers or stakeholders in their planning and decision making.

5. Research Report: This report seeks to communicate to its audience about research that has been conducted, the method that was applied in the conduct of the research and the results or the outcome of the research. They are often published in academic journals or conferences. These types of reports are more academic, so they are often published on academic platforms.

6. Investigative Reports: They are documents presenting findings and conclusions from investigations used in legal, law enforcement or financial/business audit contexts. They present to an audience what has been found following an investigation into an issue or incident.

7. Progress Reports: These are periodic updates the status of a project, milestones and challenges. Progress reports are often used in project management and stakeholder communication. The reports seek to know the level of progress of a project being undertaking and the challenges which enables stakeholders to make informed decisions about the project.

8. Feasibility Reports: These report types provide evaluations of project viability, considering factors like cost, resources and potential outcomes. They provide information on the success of a project, whether there is the possibility that the project would do well.

9. Compliance Report: This is a document verifying adherence to regulations, standards or laws. They are also used in legal, audit or quality control contexts.

These have the mandate of finding out the level at which a project or operation sticks to laid down regulations or standards for carrying out such operation.

10. Incident Reports: The detailed accounts of events, incidents or accidents used in legal, insurance or investigative contexts. It is an account on an incident, event or accident that has occurred. The event or incident is mostly investigated before the report is made. It could also be an eyewitness report where the reporter was at the scene of the incident.

Structure/Format of Report Writing

Figure 17.4: Structure of a report

1. Introduction

a. It is advisable that in your opening/introduction you give a brief/short overview of the topic that is being discussed. This gives the audience the general idea of the issue.

b. The purpose of the report is also necessary to be stated in the introduction. The purpose stipulates the reason behind the writing of such report. That is, is it for a decision to be made, to act or to inform the audience about something or what?

c. Also indicate the scope of the report. The scope describes the boundaries and limitations the research such as the time frame, budget, resources, methodology, data, criteria and standards that were applied in the research.

2. Background Information

a. It is necessary to provide contextual information related to the topic. This helps to connect ideas on the topic to the circumstances in which they presented.

b. The history or background of the topic also helps to provide deeper knowledge on the perspectives of the topic, the angle at which the topic is being presented.

So, you are encouraged to provide a brief background of the topic.

c. In addition, you need to provide relevant definitions or terminologies in your research work. This breaks down the message for the audience to have insights of the topic.

3. Body

a. Clear and concise paragraphs should be prioritised in reporting. Do not use more words than necessary in your paragraphs. Rather, be as brief as possible but ensure the relevance of the report.

b. Provide topic sentences and supporting evidence. Supporting evidence would make your report look authentic. These could be data, statistics, research findings and others.

c. Also, give your analysis and interpretation of data gathered. Raw data can cause misunderstanding and misinterpretation of your report. It is therefore necessary that you break down and interpret the data gathered for easy understanding.

4. Conclusion

a. In concluding your report, you must restate the reason and the boundaries and limitations of the report.

b. Give recommendations or suggestions if necessary. These are actionable items you want to be carried out based on the report’s findings. Thus, what do you want to be done about the report? This is optional because not all reports need actions be carried out on them.

5. References (mandatory) List the sources you have cited in the report. There are different ways to do this so ensure that you go by the chosen citation style. Let the audience know where you had your information for the report from. This is to avoid people accusing you of stealing their intellectual property (plagiarism) or not recognising them after your sourcing information from them.

Note

• Word counts are approximate and may vary depending on the intended recipient(s) of the specific report.

• Headings and subheadings should be clear and descriptive.

• Use proper formatting, spacing and font styles.

• Include visual aids like tables, graphs or images to support the text.

• Edit and proofread the report carefully before submission Significance of Report Writing

1. Communication: Reports convey information and ideas to others. Since we cannot be everywhere in the world to see and know all that happen around us, there is the need for us to rely on some other persons to be informed of the happenings around us. This could be done either through a spoken or written piece of information.

These reports from others give us information and ideas that we would not get on our own.

2. Documentation: Reports provide a record of research, projects or events. This suggests that it is not all the speeches or information we hear from others that we can keep. Through report writing, we can preserve and keep records of research, projects or events that we come across in our lives.

3. Analysis and Insight: Reports present analysis and interpretation of data. This presents the opportunity for the audience to break down data or information gathered on an issue. Examining the clearly expressed data helps to demonstrate the meaning/implication of the data.

4. Decision-Making: Reports inform decisions and problem-solving. Reports give insight and direction to audience on an issue. Based on the reports, stakeholders can make informed decisions on an issue.

5. Learning and Development: Reports foster learning from experiences and research. Before you write a report, you might have experienced or researched into something. These experiences and research materials serve as learning avenues for humans. Through this, we can develop ourselves.

Key Features of Report Writing

1. Clear purpose: A clear purpose or objective should be stated in the introduction.

This feature of a report gives your audience the opportunity to know what the report seeks to achieve, so they can follow your discussion effectively since they now know what to expect at the end.

2. Organised structure: A logical and organised structure is followed in report writing. This includes the introduction, body, conclusion and references. The well- organised structure of every report is crucial. It ensures that all the elements of the report are rightly placed at their required places and that, these elements are properly linked to give unity to the report.

3. Objective language: Objective and unbiased language is used throughout a report.

Reports, especially the official ones are mostly written on real issues or events. This requires that when you are writing such a report you should be objective. Objectivity here means that you speak to the issues as they appear. Do not present them based on your feelings or emotions or personal interpretations of the issues to suit your interest.

4. Concise writing: Clear and concise writing is used to convey information. This calls for brevity in your writing or presentation. Avoid unnecessary explanations or expressions. Use short sentences to get your message across.

5. Accurate content: Present accurate and reliable information. Make sure that you present is what has happened so that the report can accurately be depended on for any actions.

6. Visual aids: Visual aids such as tables, graphs and figures and pictures are used to support the text. These elements would take care of inclusivity, so no category of audience is disadvantaged. Visual aids would help project the reality of the issue being reported on and also help the physically impaired audience. Tables, figures and graphs also provide further explanations to the report for better understanding.

7. Proper formatting: A consistent and appropriate format should be used throughout the report. A readable (sans serif) font should be used for the text. This helps to cater for all categories of people or learners so that no one is disadvantaged.

8. References: Make sure that the sources from which you got information for the report are properly cited and referenced. This basically means acknowledging places where information was taken from for the report. This prevents your report from being cited for plagiarism (intellectual theft, which can carry criminal charges).

9. Conclusion: A summary of the main points and recommendations are included in the conclusion. You need to restate the main points that have been discussed in the body of the report. The conclusion also takes care of any necessary recommendations you need to make for an action to be taken by the appropriate quarters.

10. Appendices: ‘Appendices’ is a space that is created for any additional information that supports your report. This may not be any major information but relevant to the topic. So, you need to capture such in the appendices.

11. Timeliness: The report should be completed and submitted on time. Reports are often requested to be produced within a given time frame. You need to ensure that you meet the timelines for the report. Missing the timelines may make your report irrelevant or not suitable for its purpose.

12. Relevance: The report must be relevant to the intended audience and purpose.

Ask yourself whether or not what you presenting is relevant/important to your target audience. Make sure the report serves its purpose for the audience.

1. Modelling: Surf the Internet for examples of well-written reports from trusted sources to serve as models. You can also read from textbooks or social media samples of reports to serve as guide to you.

2. Breakdown: Break down the report writing process into smaller, manageable tasks. If you break the writing process to its smaller components, it will help you to have in-depth understanding of each component before putting them together to form a unified whole.

3. Graphic Organisers: Use graphic organisers to help you organise your thoughts and ideas. Graphic organisers are visual thinking tools that help organise information and ideas in a way that is easy to understand and internalise. This is a great way to create a visual structure to display internal thinking externally.

4. Peer Review: You are encouraged to allow your peers review your draft report to help you learn from them. After they have gone through the draft they would provide you with feedback. Sharing their ideas about your work would help you to learn from them.

5. Step-by-Step Guidance: Your teacher would offer you step-by-step guidance to help you understand the report writing process. You can also contact colleagues to guide you through the process as you work in groups or pairs.

6. Feedback: Provide constructive feedback to help learners improve their report writing skills. This implies that it may not be every feedback that is necessary. You are therefore encouraged to give and take constructive or helpful feedback from your colleagues especially.

7. Real-World Applications: Use real-world examples to illustrate the importance of report writing. Assuming you have been sent by your parents to represent them at a Parent Teacher Association meeting in your locality, why would you write a report of the meeting?

8. Collaboration: You are encouraged to collaborate with your colleagues so that you learn from each other's strengths and weaknesses. To ensure that this happens, you need to work in groups or pairs so you can learn from one another or each other.

9. Technology Integration: Incorporate technology to make report writing more engaging and interactive. You can surf the Internet for samples of reports and read.

Also, develop a draft report and make a PowerPoint presentation of your content in class and allow for critiques.

10. Differentiation: This encourages you to learn at your own pace. Do not be in a haste to finish your learning task with your when you are not at the same learning level with your colleagues. If you require additional time to accomplish what has been assigned, you can request for it. Make sure your learning needs are met before you progress to a different activity.

11. Rubrics: Use rubrics (formally stated rules of format) to assess your reports with these expectations in mind. This involves comparing what you have written with the processes that are involved in report writing to ensure that the processes are satisfied.

12. Self-Assessment: After you have finished writing your report, assess your own report writing skills. This will help you to discover if there has been an improvement in your writing skills.

Incorporate these strategies into your report writing and you will be an excellent report writer within and beyond the classroom space, into the world of work and further studies.

Activity 17.2 Report Samples and Writing

1. In a whole class discussion, bring up the significance of report writing

2. In groups of four, surf the internet and read a variety of sample reports and identify their key features.

3. In pairs, identify the strategies employed in writing these reports and present your responses to the whole class.

4. As an eyewitness to a misunderstanding which led to a fight between two of your classmates, write a vivid report to the school management to enable them carry out their investigations into the issue. Orally share your report with colleagues in class for comparison and critiquing.

Welcome to Section 20. This is where we will observe closely the art of writing, with a specific focus on crafting compelling articles suitable for publication in international newspapers and magazines. As aspiring writers, understanding the nuances of article writing is crucial in today’s globalised world, where diverse audiences seek engaging and informative content. We will explore key elements such as topic selection, audience awareness and the importance of a strong lead. Additionally, we will discuss the different styles and tones appropriate for various publications, allowing you to tailor your work to fit specific editorial guidelines. Throughout the exploration, you will have the opportunity to practise your writing skills through targeted exercises, peer reviews and feedback sessions. You will be equipped with the tools necessary to create articles that resonate with readers and stand out in the competitive landscape of international media.

Key Ideas

• An article is a written piece of information that is intended for the consumption of a target audience.

• Article writing is the process of creating content for publication in various media.

Currently, many pieces of writing are produced through the devices of AI. It is of great importance that you learn how to create an article yourself, before any recourse to AI in its many forms. You should aim to be self-reliant and critical before you delve into computer-generated methods.

Figure 20.1: An image that sums up article writing What is Article Writing?

An article is a written piece of information that is meant for the consumption by a target audience. Article writing is the process of creating content for publication in various media, such as: Newspapers, Magazines, Online blogs, Journals and Websites Articles aim to:

₁. inform: Articles usually centre on a subject or area that informs the world about an issue, an idea or a subject.

2. persuade: Articles usually compel readers to adopt a particular point of view. Article writers are therefore intentional about this.

3. entertain: Some articles entertain readers with stories or anecdotes. They often come with a serious underlying message

4. educate: Articles aim to educate the public on issues and the realities about them.

5. warn: Some articles also aim to readers against something. It could be an impending danger or a habit.

Effective Article Writing Involves the Following

₁. Researching a topic You cannot have well-written article without researching the topic you are writing about. The research will help you gather enough appropriate information on the topic to be able to provide the right information to your audience. You can find the information on the Internet, from books or from people around you. When you’ve gathered this data, you will be more informed about what to provide for your audience.

2. Organising ideas and structuring content After gathering data. you must critically examine the data/information to know what is needed or not needed for your article. You then must develop and organise your ideas based on the data gathered. Think of how to structure/organise your article based on its format. If you achieve these things, you are closer to getting an effective article written.

3. Writing clear, concise and engaging text Make sure your article is clear enough for understanding. Use brief sentences to convey your message. Also ensure that the text is more engaging to the audience.

Evoke the interest of the audience.

4. Editing and proofreading for accuracy and quality It is often advised that you edit and read your article over and over to make sure the text is accurate and is of high quality to meet the demands of the audience.

5. Adapting tone and style to suit the target audience and publication Since articles are directed to groups or an audience, we must choose the tone and style of writing that would suit the target audience.

Articles Can Cover Various Formats

₁. News articles: It includes headline, lead paragraph, body copy, conclusion, image(s), subheadings related links and others.

2. Feature articles: They contain a headline, introduction, the main body and a concluding paragraph.

3. How-to articles: Add a title, include your name, write the introduction, your body, the conclusion and others.

4. Opinion pieces (editorials, columns): They start with a clear, short first sentence or paragraph to grab the readers’ attention, the body, final paragraph or conclusion.

5. Reviews (books, movies, products): The format for a reviewing article includes title, abstract, keywords, main text, summary and conclusion and references.

The Key Characteristics of Article Writing

₁. Objectivity (or clear bias, depending on the type of article)

2. Clarity and concision

3. Engaging headlines and introductions

4. Well-structured and organised content

5. Accurate grammar, spelling and punctuation Key Points to Consider When Writing Article ₁. _(Planning)

a. Choose a topic: Select a relevant and interesting topic. The topic should be of interest to you and suitable for the audience. A topic is a key component of article writing. Without it there will be nothing to write about. Find a topic that is relevant and interesting and write about (that is, if you have that option).

b. Define the purpose: Determine the purpose of the article (inform, persuade, entertain). Thus, let your audience know the reason for which you are writing the article.

c. Identify the audience: Understand who the readers are and tailor the content towards that. Identifying the audience helps you to write a level appropriate to meet their understanding ability. Also, this informs you of the diction and language to use.

2. Structure

a. Headline/title: Craft a catchy and informative headline. A catchy title draws the attention of the audience to the text. Thus, they would be enticed to read to the end.

b. Lead (Introduction): Engage readers with a brief overview. Provide background information about the topic so your audience would have a fair idea about it.

c. Body: Provide clear and concise information divided into paragraphs. This is where you need to discuss your ideas into detail. It is more appropriate that you discuss each idea in a paragraph. Form clear brief but essential sentences.

d. Conclusion: Summarise the main points and leave a lasting impression. This involves restating the ideas in simple sentences, so it becomes easier for the audience to identify what has been discussed.

3. Writing Style

a. Clarity: Use simple language and avoid jargon. Choosing to use high level language may challenge the understanding of the readers. Use words that are well-known to the readers and avoid using unfamiliar words.

b. Coherence: Organise ideas logically and use transitions. Connect your ideas or points applying appropriate linking expressions to ensure interconnectivity or interrelatedness of the ideas.

c. Objectivity: Maintain a neutral tone unless the piece has to be deliberately opinion-based. This calls on you to speak to the audience as they are and avoid bringing in your own opinions or judgement on it unless it requires that you make a judgement.

d. Concision: Use relevant details and avoid unnecessary information. Be as brief as possible but ensure all the necessary details are captured.

4. Editing

a. Review content: Ensure accuracy, relevance and consistency. You cannot this without reading through the work thoroughly and attentively. You are obliged to read to ensure all is well before submitting for publication.

b. Check grammar and punctuation: Ensure error-free writing. Grammatical constructions and punctuation also contribute to the understanding of written materials so keep that in mind. As part of editing the work, ensure that it is free from those errors.

c. Improve readability: Use headings, subheadings, clear fonts and bullet points.

5. Finalising

a. Fact-check: Verify information and sources and ensure that you reference appropriately.

b. Proofread: Carefully review the final draft. You might ask someone to do that for you

c. Format: Adhere to the required format such as American Psychological Association referencing style, font style and size among others.

Structure of an Article

₁. Heading/title Provide a catchy title that grabs the attention of readers, often stemming from the question. The title is formed from the question given. Ensure that you engage with your readers by providing a title/heading that is likely to attract the attention of your audience.

2. Introduction Hook: Interesting fact, question, quote or a scenario can be used as opening to your writing. These appeal to the senses of readers; they would thus be engaged in the text with more of what it is about.

Background information: Give a brief overview of the topic to let readers have a fair idea of the discussion.

State the main idea of the article(purpose). What is your reason for writing the article? Are you writing to educate, entertain, warn or inform?

3. Body Paragraphs

These are the paragraphs in which the details are discussed. Preferably, each point/ idea is discussed in a paragraph. These contain topic sentences (the main sentences) and supporting ones, giving details to the main sentence. They are connected by using transitions/linking expressions to unify the article. The number of paragraphs in an article is dependent on the number of ideas/points you want to share with the audience. You can have as many as or as few as required.

4. Conclusion Restate or summarise the main ideas in a sharper way. Detailed discussion is not needed in the conclusion of the article. A final thought or call to action might be used if that is necessary or demanded.

Strategies for Learning Article Writing

₁. Modelling: Find examples of well-written articles and break down their structure, style (it could be employing literary devices like metaphor, simile, imagery and others to convey the message) and techniques.

2. Guided Writing: Find a topic of your choice, outline and call on your teacher or colleagues to guide you as you attempt to create the article. Also, you can seek guidance from teachers.

3. Peer Review: Have colleagues review and provide you with feedback on your article to develop critical thinking and editing skills.

4. Writing Workshops: Form groups and conduct regular writing sessions where you can write, share and receive feedback from one another.

5. Topic Selection: Choose topics that interest you. This will promote engagement and motivation. If you choose the topic, you should have the interest to engage effectively in writing.

6. Outline and Structure: Learn how to create outlines, use transitions and structure your articles effectively.

7. Research Skills: Apply your knowledge on research by conducting research on your choice of topic or subject. Thus, you will find information needed for your writing. You should remember to reference your sources well.

8. Style and Tone: Discuss the importance of tone (sober or harsh), voice and style in article writing. Your choice of these elements communicates a lot to your article. They could positively or negatively affect the article. These together form the language of the article. International newspaper articles require a standard language since they target audiences even beyond one’s national boundaries.

9. Editing and Revision: Revise and edit your work, focusing on clarity, coherence and grammar. Is there a clear logical development in the writing? This question would help you do due diligence in your editing and revising.

10. Publication: To experience real-world writing, consider publishing your articles in a school magazine, blog or online platform. This gives opportunity to others and yourself to learn from one another.

11. Guest Speakers: As a class you can organise and liaise with the school authority to invite professional writers or journalists to share their experiences and insights with you.

12. Feedback and Encouragement: Provide constructive feedback and encouragement to colleagues and listen to them carefully too, to help you improve and stay motivated.

Activity 20.1 Writing an article

1. You participated in your community’s annual get together where issues of development were discussed. Write an article suitable for publication in a local magazine, discussing four measures that can be put in place to boost development.

2. Work in mixed-ability or gender groups to brainstorm and pitch an original article idea to the class as if you are submitting it to a real newspaper or magazine.

3. In your groups, compare and contrast the articles in Activity 2 above and analyse the different perspectives and approaches.

4. Exchange articles with a different group and proof-read each other’s work.

5. Now present your article to the class using visual aids and unique delivery techniques.

6. Reflect on the article you have presented. Identify the strengths, challenges and areas requiring improvement.

7. Compile a portfolio of the articles showcasing your writing development and versatility.

In conclusion to this section, let us pause for a moment and reflect on why we have spent so much time on this topic. You would have seen people everywhere reading articles in newspapers and magazines without thinking about how they came to be written.

The articles have always been created by an individual who took the first bold step towards publication – and often at an early age. Once you have followed the guidelines and created an article, check it carefully with a friend and then consider submitting it to a newspaper or magazine.

If it is published, then you can build on this foundation. Many newspapers are keen to publish articles by young writers and continuing from this, you can aim for a good career.

Until that happens, keep taking notes in your physical notebook/diary or in an online resource. That method will provide a store of ideas and references. Add good photographs and develop your computing/IT skills.

By following this path, you will make your own luck.

In the remaining lessons of Sections 21-24, some of the material might appear to be difficult, complex and possibly irrelevant to your language development but pause for a moment. The strategies being set out here are not merely for your present experience, but for your lifelong learning. If you are called on in the next year or so to provide a summary, to create a report or to undertake some research, these pages will act as an excellent guide for you. Already, with the details in your memory- bank, you will have a clear advantage from the beginning. To be honest, they are not as complicated as they appear on first sight. Study them carefully, grasp the ideas and your confidence will be boosted. We wish you well.

Hello again! In this lesson, we will analyse the art of writing, with a focus on crafting formal letters that effectively compare and contrast different issues or situations.

Writing formal letters is an essential skill in both academic and professional settings.

Mastering this technique can greatly enhance your communication abilities. We will explore the structure and language of formal letters, emphasising how to articulate comparisons and contrasts clearly and persuasively. You will learn how to organise your thoughts, use appropriate transitional phrases and maintain a formal tone throughout your writing.

Through engaging exercises and examples, you will be guided in developing the skills necessary to construct well-reasoned letters that not only present your points clearly but also demonstrate critical thinking. By the end of this studies, you will be confident in your ability to write good formal letters. Let us get started.

Key Ideas

• Formal Letter: A formal letter is a type of written communication mostly used in professional and business contexts.

• A Business Letter is another name for a Formal Letter.

• An Official Letter is also another name for a Formal Letter.

Today, we are going to learn about the different types of letters that we write, but our focus is mainly on Formal Letter writing and all that it entails. Formal writing is a style of writing that is structured, objective and devoid of colloquial language or slang. It is often used in academic, professional and technical contexts. It is well structured and follows certain writing conventions which makes it unique.

A formal letter is usually used to make formal inquiries, file complaints or express interest in employment. It is important to know that a formal letter refers to both business and official letters. Business letters deal with work or business, mostly letters for recruitment or employment whereas official letters are written to or from people in public office.

Some Distinction Between Official and Business

Letters

Table 23.1: An explanation of Official and Business Letters Official Letters Business or Employment letters These letters are written on general topics that are mostly of public interest. They are written to people in public office. Official letters include:

Letters to Members of Parliament

Letters to Heads or Principals of

Institutions Letters to Ministries and Departments

Letters for Scholarship or Sponsorship

Official letters normally identify and address issues in society.

Example: Write a letter to the Director of Education in your country discussing at least five ways technology can help improve education at the Senior High School level.

Business letters involve letters of employment or recruitment. They are written by people who want employment.

A typical example is an application letter. In an application letter, the writer is expected to highlight the following:

The Writer’s Qualifications

Skills and Job Experiences

Achievement and Motivation

Other examples include letters of intent and recommendation.

For instance: Glorrion Oil Company has advertised for the position of a sale’s personnel.

As a prospective candidate, write a letter to the Human Resource Manager of the company, applying for the position advertised.

A formal letter can take the following forms:

Go ahead and perform the Activity 23.1.

As mentioned, formal letters are unique and writing them demands certain principles. We are going to look at these principles and how they help in writing good formal letters.

Principles of Formal Letter Writing

Your ability to understand the principles of formal letter writing is absolutely necessary for your academic success and future endeavours. The formal letter has the following principles:

Structure

1. Introduction: Start with a clear thesis statement that outlines the main idea or argument. The introduction should provide context and engage the reader's interest.

2. Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph should focus on a single idea that supports the thesis. Begin with a topic sentence, provide evidence or examples and explain how it relates to your main argument.

3. Conclusion: Summarise the main points made in the body and restate the thesis in light of the discussion for emphasis. Avoid introducing new information in this section.

Tone and Language

1. Objective Language: Use a formal tone that avoids personal pronouns (I, you, we).

Instead, use passive voice or third person perspective to maintain objectivity.

2. Complex Vocabulary: Employ sophisticated vocabulary that is appropriate for the topic. However, avoid using jargon unless it is relevant to the audience's understanding.

3. Clarity and Precision: Ensure that your writing is clear and precise. Avoid ambiguity and vague language. Be direct and concise.

4. Control Emotions: Emotional language should be controlled as much as possible.

Grammar and Mechanics

1. Correct Grammar: Use proper grammar, including subject - verb agreement, verb tense consistency and correct punctuation.

2. Varied Sentence Structure: Incorporate a mix of simple, compound and complex sentences to enhance the flow of writing.

3. Formal Conventions: Follow conventions such as avoiding contractions (e.g., use ‘do not’ instead of ‘don’t’) and maintaining a consistent point of view.

Research and Evidence

1. Citing Sources: When using information from other sources, always cite them appropriately. Familiarise yourself with different citation styles (APA, MLA, Chicago) as required by your assignment.

2. Supporting Arguments: Use credible and relevant evidence to back up your claims.

This can include statistics, quotes from experts and examples from literature or case studies.

Revision and Editing

1. Drafting: Be prepared to write multiple drafts. The first draft is rarely perfect, so when using information from other sources, always cite them appropriately.

Familiarise yourself with different citation styles (APA, MLA, Chicago) as required by your assignment.

2. Supporting Arguments: Use credible and relevant evidence to back up your claims.

This can include statistics, quotes from experts and examples from literature or case studies.

3. Peer Review: Share your work with classmates or teachers for feedback. Constructive criticism can help identify areas for improvement.

4. Proofreading: Always proofread your final draft to catch grammatical errors, awkward phrasing or typos.

Purpose and Audience

1. Understanding Purpose: Know why you are writing (to inform, persuade, analyse) and tailor your content accordingly.

2. Audience Awareness: Consider who will be reading your work. Adjust your language and complexity based on their knowledge level and expectation.

Gaining knowledge in formal writing is crucial for academic excellence and professional communication. It is important to practise these skills regularly, participate in more writing exercises and seek feedback to improve your writing abilities. By focusing on structure, tone, grammar, research and revision, this will help you develop strong formal writing skills that will serve you well in your educational journey and beyond.

Elements of a Formal Letter

The elements are the unique features that make the formal letter different from other forms of letter writing. Let us examine the elements or features of a formal letter.

1. Writer’s/Sender's Address: This is your address or the address of the writer. It is usually placed at the top right corner of the paper but can also be at the top left corner of the paper.

2. Date: It is the date on which it is written. The date consists of day, month and year.

It is placed below the sender’s address.

3. Designation/Recipient's Address: It refers to the address of the person or organisation to whom the letter is addressed. It is placed below the date, on the left side of the page.

4. Salutation: A formal greeting to the recipient, such as ‘Dear Sir,’ ‘Dear Madam,’ ‘Dear Mr. Smith’ or ‘To Whom It May Concern.’

5. Subject Line or Heading: A statement that briefly summarise the purpose of the letter. It is helpful in business correspondence.

6. Body: This is the main content of the letter. It is made up of three parts: the introduction, the main body and the conclusion. The introduction gives brief background information about the thesis statement. The main body includes the mainstream paragraphs and involves a logical development of the subject matter.

Finally, the conclusion which summarises the ideas presented in the main body.

7. Closing: A formal sign off, such as ‘Sincerely,’ ‘Yours faithfully,’ (when the name of the addressee is not used in the letter) or ‘Kindest regards.’

8. Signature: The handwritten signature of the sender, followed by the typed name and, if applicable, the sender's title and organisation.

9. Enclosures: A list of any additional documents included with the letter, if applicable.

You can see that the formal letter has some features which make it different from the other forms of letters. To assess how much you have learned, perform the Activity 23.2.

Activity 23.1 Discussing Formal Letters

Research and discuss formal letters with your friend or classmate and make a poster presentation on your findings for your classmates to read. Have fun!

Activity 23.2 Features of a Formal Letter and Composing a Formal Letter

1. Work with your friends or classmates to examine the features that make a formal letter different from other forms of letters.

2. Together with your friend or classmate, write a letter to the minister of energy, discussing at least three ways in which solar energy can help reduce the cost of electricity tariffs in your country.

3. Present your work on a flip chart or PowerPoint.