State and Non-state Actors in Ghana

This section looks at the important role political parties play in democratic countries.

You will learn how political parties help people take part in politics, teach citizens about the political system, and help shape government decisions. The section also explains what elections are, the different types, and why they matter. You will learn how elections help choose leaders, make governments more trusted, and keep them accountable. Finally, the section introduces the different voting systems used to choose leaders, such as the majoritarian system, proportional system, and absolute majority system.

This section builds on what you learned in Year 1 about the meaning and types of political parties and connects with your Year 2 lessons on political parties and their roles in competitive political systems, especially the different types of party systems in Ghana. Together, these earlier topics help you better understand how political parties shape democratic governance and influence decision-making in the country.

KEY IDEAS

• Political parties help citizens participate in democracy

• Elections are important for choosing leaders and promoting accountability

• Different voting systems are used to select representatives

A political party is a group of people with similar ideas who come together to take part in elections and try to win power to lead the country. Political parties are like teams.

They share similar views and values and work together to get elected. Political parties play many important roles in democratic societies. These roles may differ depending on the political system, but there are some basic functions that most political parties have in common.

1. Recruitment and training of political officeholders: Political parties recruit, select and present qualified candidates to represent them in elections.

Party positions provide the training grounds and experience for future political leaders.

2. Interest aggregation and articulation: Political parties collect the ideas, needs, and concerns of citizens and organise them into clear plans or policies.

This helps the government understand what people want and respond in a better way. In simple terms, political parties turn many different opinions into useful and practical political decisions.

3. Political socialisation: In democratic countries, political parties help teach people about how the government works and what their roles are as citizens.

They help people understand public issues, how leaders are chosen, and why it’s important to take part in national decisions.

4. Communication: Political parties help share information between the government and the people. They tell citizens what the government is doing, and they also bring the concerns and ideas of the people to the government.

This helps both sides understand each other better and keeps everyone more informed.

5. Policy-making: Political parties that win elections and form the government help make important decisions for the country. Before elections, they create manifestos. These are documents that explain what they plan to do if they win.

In Ghana, political parties use manifestos to share their ideas for solving national problems.

6. Serve as a watchdog: Opposition political parties help check the actions of the government. They watch closely to make sure the government is doing the right thing. They speak out if there is corruption, bad policies, or mistakes.

They do this through Parliament committee systems, the media, and peaceful demonstrations.

Activity 4.1 Purpose of Political Parties

1. In a group of not more than, explore one important function of political parties, and prepare for a small group presentation.

2. Research how political parties in Ghana have helped strengthen democracy.

Use the table below to show specific ways political parties have encouraged democratic participation and supported national stability. Share work with a peer for feedback.

Ways Political Parties Encourage

Democratic Participation

Ways Political Parties Support

National Stability

Educate voters on their rights and the electoral process Accept the election results and respect constitutional rules

An election is the process of choosing an individual for a particular office by voting.

It is an organised process by which people choose their representatives. Elections may be conducted to fill vacant positions in the legislature, executive, regional or local government units and other business organisations and voluntary groups.

For an election to be called democratic, it must be free, which means it must meet certain conditions, including:

• Opportunity for citizens to form political parties and put forward candidates

• Open and fair competition between people or parties who want to be elected.

This gives voters real choices when deciding who should lead.

• Political parties and candidates must be allowed to campaign freely under the same set of rules and regulations.

• Everyone who qualifies should have the right to vote.

• Registered voters must be free to vote for whoever they want.

• Each ballot should be accorded equal value and recorded transparently.

• Independent electoral management body/commission Types of Elections ₁. General Elections: General elections are big national voting events where people all over the country vote. The main purpose is to choose leaders for important government positions. In Ghana, this includes voting for Members of Parliament (MPs) and the President. These elections help decide who will make laws and lead the country.

2. By-elections: By-elections occur between general elections to fill vacancies in representative positions. The purpose is to replace representatives who have died, resigned, been removed, or assumed other positions. It is limited to specific constituencies or districts where vacancies exist.

3. Run-off elections: A run-off election is a second round of voting that happens when no candidate gets more than 50% of the votes in the first round. It is used to make sure the winner has the support of most voters. Only the top two candidates from the first round are allowed to compete in the run-off. For example, in 2008, there was a presidential run-off in Ghana between Prof. Atta-Mills of the NDC and Nana Akufo-Addo of the NPP. Prof. Atta-Mills won that run-off election.

4. Primary Elections: Primary elections are held to choose a party’s candidate for the general election. When many people from the same party want to stand for election, the party uses a primary to pick just one. Usually, only party members can vote in a primary, but in some cases (called open primaries), other voters can take part too.

5. Local Elections: Local elections are held to choose leaders for smaller areas like regions, districts, or communities. It is organised to pick people who will take care of local issues. These elections only happen in certain areas, not the whole country. For example, in Ghana, local elections are used to elect Assembly Members and Unit Committee Members.

6. Referendum and Plebiscite: A referendum and plebiscite are special types of elections where citizens vote directly on a major issue or decision, instead of leaving it only to politicians. These are often used to decide big national matters, like changes to the Constitution or major government policies. However, there is a difference between the two. A referendum is usually required by law and follows strict rules. It is often used for important decisions like constitutional changes, and the results must be followed by the government. A plebiscite is more like a public opinion poll. It helps the government understand what people think, but the results do not have to be followed. They are for advice.

7. Recall: Recall is a way for citizens to remove an elected leader if they believe the person is not doing a good job. People in the community can ask for a new election to either keep the representative in office or remove them. For example, in Ghana’s local government system, Assembly Members can be removed from office if the people they represent are not satisfied with their performance.

Activity 4.2 Meaning and Types of Elections

1. In pairs, research the voting criteria (who can vote and how) in at least two other countries and compare them with the voting requirements in Ghana.

Write a short comparison summary using the table below and share your findings with your classmates for feedback and discussion.

Country Legal voting age Who can vote Voter registration required Other requirements Ghana 18 years Ghanaian citizens only Yes Must be of sound mind As you research, use the following question guides

a. What is the legal voting age in each country?

b. Are citizens required to register before voting?

c. Are there any restrictions (e.g. citizenship, criminal record, residency)?

4. Work in a small group of three to design a creative way, such as a flyer or an animated video, to support your District Electoral Commission/Office in encouraging young people over the age of 18 to register and vote.

5. Form a small group with four other classmates and research the types of elections. Prepare and present a poster illustrating the types of elections for the whole class discussion. Do some googling on the types of elections, or see https://ec.gov.gh/electoral-system/

Elections are a key part of any democratic government. They allow citizens to choose their leaders and take part in how the country is run. Even in some non-democratic (authoritarian) countries, elections are still held, though they may not always be free or fair. Elections are not just about voting on one day. They are part of a bigger process called the electoral cycle, which includes planning, campaigning, setting rules, and announcing results. In modern democracies, elections are important for several reasons:

1. Mechanism of choosing representatives: Elections help people choose individuals who will speak and make decisions on their behalf in government.

During elections, political parties and independent candidates are nominated to contest for positions. Voters then select who they want to represent them in institutions like Parliament, District Assemblies, or as President. This is how leaders are chosen in a democratic system.

2. Allow citizens to keep or change their leaders: Elections give citizens the chance to decide if they want to keep the current leaders or choose new ones.

People can look at what the government has done, and if they are not happy, they can vote for a different leader or party. For example, in Ghana, the President is chosen directly by the people for four years. At the end of a term, Ghanaians can vote to either keep the President or elect someone new. This makes it possible to change leaders in a peaceful and orderly way.

3. Elections serve as agents of political socialisation and integration: During elections, people across the country come together to choose their leaders. The media talk a lot about the issues, political parties, and candidates. This helps to inform and educate citizens. Elections also bring people together with a shared goal, deciding who will lead the country.

4. Elections confer legitimacy on government: When elections are free and fair, they show that the people support the leaders chosen. This means the government has the right, or legitimacy, to lead because most people voted for it. Elections help prove that leaders have the people’s approval and trust.

5. Participation in governance: Elections give people the chance to take part in how the country is run. By voting, citizens use their right to choose leaders and help decide the future of their community and country. This is called exercising your franchise or right to vote, and it is an important part of being a good citizen in a democracy.

Activity 4.3 Functions of Elections

1. Work with a classmate to research one main function of elections in a democracy. Discuss your findings with other classmates. Start your research with the resource from https://www.britannica.com/

2. Compare your summaries with the other two groups, and together, based on

activity 4.3.1 above, organise and create a poster, social media depicting the various functions of elections for further class discussion.

A voting system is the method used to convert individual votes into seats in a representative body, such as a parliament or for electing a president. It includes the set of rules and procedures that govern how elections are conducted and how winners are determined. In simple terms, the voting system decides who wins or loses in an election. Voting in elections is an important way for citizens to influence government decisions. By voting, we choose representatives who make decisions and create laws on our behalf.

Types of Voting Systems

Different countries use different voting systems based on their culture, political history, and how their parties are organised. Each system has its strengths and weaknesses.

Some systems help smaller groups get represented, while others favour bigger parties.

The rules of each system also decide who can vote and how the votes are counted.

There are three main types of voting systems, usually based on constituencies. These are: single-member plurality/majority system, proportional representation and absolute majority systems. There are three main types of voting systems you need to know:

First-Past-the-Post (Simple Majority System), Proportional Representation System and

Absolute Majority System.

1. First-Past-the-Post: In this system, the country is divided into constituencies (areas). Each constituency chooses one person to represent them in Parliament.

The winner is the candidate who gets the highest number of votes, even if it is not more than half of the total votes. This is called a plurality. It is also known as the simple-member plurality/majority system. For example, in Ghana, parliamentary elections use this system.

2. Proportional Representation: In this system, there is a multi-member constituency where political parties get seats based on the number of votes they receive. The more votes a party gets, the more seats it gets in Parliament. Voters usually vote for a party, not an individual candidate. The party then chooses which people will take the seats, based on a list. The goal of PR is to make sure each party’s share of seats matches its share of the votes.

3. Absolute Majority System: In this system, a candidate must get more than half of the total valid votes (over 50%) to win an election. This is called an absolute majority. If no one gets more than 50% in the first round, a second round (called a run-off) is held between the top two candidates. In Ghana, the President is elected using the absolute majority system. A candidate must get 50% plus one vote to win.

Activity 4.4 Voting Systems

1. Research the meaning and types of voting systems and share your findings in a whole-class discussion. Go to http://google.com to begin your search.

2. Write a paragraph summary of the ideas expressed in the whole class discussion on preferred voting systems. Exchange your paper with a classmate and provide feedback on their work.

You are welcome to Section 5, which focuses on Public Administration. This section is important because it helps you understand the purpose and functions of government.

Through it, you will gain insight into the key activities that governments undertake and the responsibilities they have towards their citizens.

The section begins with a discussion on decentralisation and local government. You will learn how power and decision-making are shared between the central government and local authorities, and how this affects governance and service delivery in communities.

The second part provides an overview of the civil service. It explains how the civil service works, its role in implementing government policies, and the various methods it uses to carry out its duties. You will also examine the ethical responsibilities of civil servants, as well as common challenges they face, such as delays, corruption, and resistance to change. The final part explores e-Governance. It highlights how the use of digital platforms and information and communication technology (ICT) is helping to improve public service delivery, reduce paperwork, and make government operations more efficient. By studying this section, you will develop a better understanding of how public administration works and how it affects your everyday life as a citizen.

This section links with Year 1 and 2 discussions on the Meaning and Types of Decentralisation, the characteristics of the Civil Service and the concept of E-government and E-governance.

KEY IDEAS

• Decentralisation allows citizens’ consultation and participation in decision-making.

• Civil and public servants have duties and ethical responsibilities towards the state.

• Ghana has implemented digital initiatives like mobile money for public payments.

• Digital technologies improve governance by enhancing transparency and efficiency in public service delivery.

In the past three decades (since the birth of the Fourth Republic), decentralisation of governance has become the leading approach in the development agenda of Ghana.

Several justifications have been provided for this governance model. The positive effects of decentralisation include the following.

1. Promote participatory governance: Decentralisation promotes empowered and participatory governance by involving residents in decision-making. In other words, decentralisation means giving power to local areas so people can help make decisions. It lets community members, including groups and organisations, take part in planning and solving problems. This way, local plans match what the people need.

2. Foster inclusive growth and poverty reduction: Decentralising government enhances inclusive growth and poverty reduction. Thus, decentralisation helps reduce poverty and grow the economy for everyone by letting local leaders make decisions. Since they know their community’s needs better than the central government, they can use local people, ideas, and resources to solve problems more effectively.

3. Enhance transparency and accountability: Decentralisation makes government more open and responsible by allowing people to elect local leaders and monitor their work. This keeps officials focused on their duties, reduces corruption, and ensures they answer to the community.

4. Public service delivery and community development: Decentralisation is expected to improve public service delivery and promote community development. The concept helps improve services and community development by bringing government closer to the people. Local leaders can better understand and solve problems in their areas, especially in rural communities with different needs.

5. Promote political stability and unity: Decentralisation helps keep the country united by involving all groups in decision-making. It gives minority and marginalised communities a voice to participate in local governance, which builds inclusion, peace, and political stability.

Decentralisation has increased the voice of the poor and thereby improved accountability and responsiveness of government in Ghana, but it is confronted with several challenges.

1. Inadequate technical and competent personnel: Human resources are the most important asset of any organisation, yet many local government units or districts in Ghana lack skilled workers. Sometimes, untrained staff make important decisions because the districts cannot hire their own workers.

Recruitment and selection are controlled by the central government, and political connections can influence appointments instead of merit or qualifications. Low pay and poor working conditions also make it hard to attract qualified people, especially in rural areas.

2. Inadequate revenue: District Assemblies get money from taxes, fees, and the District Assembly Common Fund (DACF). However, they struggle because the local tax base is small, and the central government controls many key revenue sources. Funds from the DACF are often delayed or reduced without the Assemblies knowing, which can lead to projects being stopped or abandoned.

3. Non-involvement of citizens in decision-making: Citizen involvement in local decision-making in Ghana is limited due to low public awareness and inadequate participation mechanisms. Decision-making tends to be dominated by a few individuals, increasing the risk of the system being used for personal gain. This is further worsened by widespread apathy. As a result, policies and programmes often lack community input, leading to poor quality and limited impact.

4. Increased graft and corruption: At the district level, there is weak monitoring, poor accountability, and little public access to budget information, making it easier for funds to be misused. When local officials control money without citizen involvement, it can lead to corruption, favouritism, and loss of trust in local government. This hurts transparency and slows down development.

Activity 5.1 Challenges of Decentralisation

1. In a group of not less than three of your classmates, explore at least two key challenges of Ghana’s decentralisation. Compare your findings with those of other groups for feedback.

2. Interview your teachers on some key challenges of decentralisation in your locality. Present your findings in the form of a diagram as seen below.

The Civil Service is very important in a democratic country because it helps make and carry out government decisions. As government work becomes more complex, only skilled and well-trained workers can do the job well. The Civil Service keeps the government running smoothly, gives expert advice, and makes sure there is stability when leaders change. It also remembers and preserves important government knowledge and practices. Its main functions include:

1. Policy initiation: Senior civil servants create policies to solve important problems in the country. They present different options to ministers, who then choose the ones that will help improve the country’s social and economic development.

2. Policy implementation: Government policies and programmes are carried out through the civil service. In other words, civil servants are responsible for fulfilling goals set by the ruling government.

3. Undertake research: The civil service regularly studies national issues and publishes its findings. These findings give useful recommendations to ministers and political leaders, helping them understand and solve problems facing Ghanaian society.

4. Advise on government plans: Civil servants offer professional and impartial advice to ministers and government officials, supporting politicians with expert input in both policy formulation and implementation.

5. Record-keeping and information management: Civil servants maintain the country’s assets and manage important documents, including files containing agreements between different governments.

Since independence, the Civil Service has played an important role in Ghana’s development, supported by citizens and successive governments. However, in recent years, it has faced criticism for being less effective and efficient, often failing to meet its main responsibilities. Its influence in public service delivery is weakening, and its central role in political, administrative, and social systems is diminishing. Challenges facing the Civil Service include:

1. Poor working environment and facilities: The Civil Service in Ghana struggles with poor physical work environments, including inadequate office space, outdated facilities, and a lack of essential equipment. These logistical problems make it difficult for staff to work effectively and deliver quality public services.

2. Inadequate and low salaries and wages: The Civil Service in Ghana struggles with low pay and small salary increases that do not match the level of responsibility or experience required. As a result, many skilled and experienced workers leave for better-paying jobs in other sectors or abroad, especially where salaries are in stronger foreign currencies.

3. Rigid rules and regulations: In Ghana, the Civil Service has too many slow and complicated procedures, especially for promotions and key appointments.

These old and inflexible rules make work slow and stop the service from adapting to new needs.

4. Overstaffing and politicisation: The Civil Service in Ghana has too many workers, especially in junior roles, because of poor planning and unchecked hiring. Many of these jobs are not essential. Also, politicians sometimes influence who gets recruited or promoted for their benefit, which reduces the Civil Service’s fairness, independence, and ability to stay neutral.

5. Delays in recruitment or promotions: The service is confronted with inadequate, qualified personnel to deliver efficient services. However, qualified individuals often wait long periods before being appointed or promoted, leading to frustration and low staff morale. These delays also create gaps in key positions, affecting the efficiency and continuity of public service delivery.

6. Corruption and weak accountability systems: Some staff members demand money or accept gifts before carrying out their official duties, undermining trust in public institutions. This practice delays service delivery, promotes unfair treatment, and damages the credibility and integrity of the civil service. The lack of strong monitoring and enforcement mechanisms allows such behaviour to go unchecked.

7. Negative work attitude: Some civil service employees view their responsibilities as government work, and therefore not their concern. This mindset makes them develop and practice negative attitudes towards work, such as lateness, absenteeism, and lack of commitment, which negatively impact productivity and weaken the quality of public service delivery.

Activity 5.2 The Civil Service

1. Individually or in groups, research the ethics and core values of the Ghana Civil Service. Prepare a 10-minute presentation to share your findings with the class. More details can be found on the Civil Service website https://ohcs.

gov.gh/

2. Research at least five daily functions performed by civil servants. Organise each function under the correct theme using the table provided below.

Prepare to share your findings with the class during the discussion session.

Theme Function

Administrative Preparing official letters and reports, organising meetings Regulatory Advisory Implementation

Today, government offices use computers and the internet to do their work faster and more efficiently. Instead of using only paper files, they now use online systems for things like buying goods for the government (e-procurement), paying taxes (e-taxation), and doing business (e-commerce). The relevance of E-governance in Ghana includes:

1. Improving citizens-government relations: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has changed how citizens and the government interact.

Through e-government, the government can share information and services online. Citizens can talk to their elected leaders and get updates through websites and social media platforms. People can also use these platforms to report problems in their communities, share opinions, and make complaints. Digital tools also help government and private workers stay connected, exchange ideas, and learn about new developments in their work.

2. Transparency and accountability: E-governance promotes transparency and accountability by making government processes more open and accessible to the public. Digital systems track and record transactions, reducing the chances of manipulation or fraud. Citizens can easily access information on government spending, decisions, and services, making it easier to hold officials accountable.

i.e., reduce corruption opportunities.

3. Improving public service delivery: ICT makes public services faster, cheaper, and easier to use. People can now access services like education and healthcare online, through things like video lessons and telemedicine. ICT also helps in community education, public safety, and emergency response. For example, during COVID-19 and in road safety campaigns. The police use digital databases to track crime and prevent it more effectively.

4. Efficiency and Productivity: ICT helps make work faster and more effective.

Job vacancies can be advertised online, and people can apply easily. Local authorities can hold virtual meetings, making governance more open and accessible. Districts can promote their culture, heritage, and tourism online to attract visitors and investors. Businesses can also apply for permits, renew licenses, and pay taxes electronically.

Activity 5.3 E-governance

1. Research on at least two government agencies or departments in Ghana that use social media platforms to share information or engage with the public. Submit your work in a structured table, as seen below, for whole- class discussion.

Name of

agency/ department Social media platform(s) Types of

activities/ services Examples of posts

2. Visit the Ghana Integrated Government Services platform at https://www.

ghana.gov.gh. Select one specific online government service available on the platform (e.g., passport application, business registration, birth certificate application) and record information on the following.

a. Purpose of the platform: The main goal or function of the platform.

b. Services offered: The specific things users can do or access on the platform.

c. Benefits to citizens: How the service makes life easier.

3. Prepare an oral presentation for 10-15 minutes.